A History of the Knights of Malta/Chapter 23

CHAPTER XXIII.

1601—1669.

• Alof de Vignacourt
• Ecciesiastical disputes
• The Malta aqueduct
• Anthony de Paule
• Chapter-general
• Election of Lascaris
• Disputes with France and Spain
• Battis of the Dardanelles
• Expulsion of the Jesuits
• Commencement of the Floriana line
• Acquisition in the West Indies
• Election of Redin
• The brothers Cottoner
• Siege and loss of Candia.

The seventeenth century opened with the accession of Alof do Vignacourt to the dignity of fifty-second Grand-Master of the Order of St. John. This knight, at the age of seventeen, had joined the ranks of the fraternity at Malta, in the year 1564, at the time when they were expecting an immediate attack by the Turks, and in the following year he passed through all the perils and hardships of the siege. He was subsequently named governor of Valetta, and as his length of service increased, so he rose in rank until he reached the post of conventual bailiff, as grand-hospitaller, and at the death of Garoes, in 1601, he was raised to the vacant office of Grand-Master. The disputes which disturbed the sway of his predecessors appeared now to have calmed down, and although on several occasions dissatisfaction and turbulence still made themselves manifest, the peace of the convent was not materially affected. Several naval exploits of more or less importance graced the annals of his rule. Successful descents were made on Barbary, Patras, Lepanto, and Lango. Laizzo and Corinth also witnessed the daring inroads of adventurous knights, who returned from these various expeditions with a vast amount of booty, and were able in consequence to store the bagnio in Malta with a large additional number of slaves.

That these exploits bore in any appreciable degree on the general issue of the struggle between the Christian and the Moslem is more than the most partial historian could venture to assert. The days when the knights of St. John were content to expend their energies and shed their blood simply in defence of their faith without regard to gain had long since pas away. Now they no longer sought in open field to crush the foe against whom their profession engaged them to maintain a constant warfare. Looking rather to their personal enrichment than to the public advantage, they strove, by means of such isolated and plundering exploits as those referred to above, to gain for their convent and themselves a rich reward.

Enraged at these repeated insults, the Turks strove, in their turn, to carry the war into the enemy’s country. In the year 1615, we therefore find them making a descent upon Malta with sixty galleys, on which occasion they disembarked 5,000 men on the island. Due precautions had, however, been taken by the inhabitants, who, on the approach of the enemy, all retreated into the towns, and the Turks gained nothing by their attempt, being driven ignominiously back into their ships with some loss.

The rule of de Vignacourt, like those of his immediate predecessors, was disturbed by the pretensions of the bishop of Malta. This ecclesiastic, whose name was Cagliares, having hail recourse to a personal visit to Rome during one of his numerous disputes with the Grand-Master and council in order to sec&e a favourable decision on his pretensions, had appointed a deputy to maintain the interests of his see during his absence. The arrogance of this deputy far exceeded even that of his chief, and the more youthful and hot headed amongst the knights were unable to restrain their indignation at his intolerable assumption. A band of these malcontents attacked the bishop’s palace by night, threatening to throw the offending prelate into the Mama Muscetto, and it was with no little difficulty that de Vignacourt was enabled to rescue him out of their hands. He despatched him to the Pope with a complaint of his conduct, and a request that he might be subjected to reproof; but Paul V., who was bent on supporting the clergy to the utmost in their pretensions, took a very high tone in the matter. So far from yielding to the request which had been preferred, he acquitted the bishop’s deputy of all blame, and called upon the Grand-Master and council, under pain of anathema, to make due reparation for the indignities to which he had been subjected. Resistance was in vain; de Vignacourt was compelled to submit, and to restore the churchman to his position. Similar scenes occurred with the grand-inquisitor, the incessant disputes which arose with these turbulent dignitaries rendering the office of Grand-Master by no means a bed of roses.

The name of de Vignacourt has in Malta become inseparably connected with the aqueduct which he caused to be made. Destitute as the towns of Valetta and Vittoriosa are of all natural springs, the inhabitants were compelled, before his time, to depend for their water supply entirely upon excavated tanks; and consequently were, in the event of a dry winter, sorely distressed during the following summer. To obviate this evil, de Vignacourt constructed a very fine aqueduct, carried principally on arches, which brought water into Valetta from some springs in the Benjemma hills, near the Città Vecchia. This aqueduct is upwards of nine miles in length, and carries the water into every part of the city, supplying numerous fountains which succeeding Grand-Masters have erected in various convenient localities. A worthier monument this than the most costly sculptured tomb. The gratitude of posterity will recall the memory of de Vignacourt so long as Valetta exists, as the founder of one of the most useful and enduring works which that city possesses.

Among the incidents of this time worth recording was the reception of Alexander Monsieur, the illegitimate son of Henry IV. by Gabrielle d’Estrees, into the Order, on the 2nd of February, 1604. For the purpose of this reception Henry had summoned to Paris the grand-priors both of France and Champagne, and arrangements were made for the ceremony to take place in the church of the Temple, then one of the most important in the possession of the fraternity. Numerous commanders and knights had flocked into Paris from the various provincial establishments in France, and everything was done to enhance the splendour of the function. On arrival at the Temple, the little prince was handed by his father to the grand-priors, and was conducted up the centre aisle between these dignitaries, followed by an escort of twelve commanders and twelve knights. At the altar, which glittered with plate and jewels, stood the cardinal de Gondy, the Papal nuncio, and a number of bishops. In the centre of the choir was erected a throne for the king and queen, around whom stood the other members of the royal family and the principal officials of the court. The ceremony began with the consecration of the young knight’s sword, and the change of clothing which was intended to typify the new duties he was to undertake. His mantle and outer garment were removed, and he was arrayed in a vest of white satin, elaborately embroidered in silver and gold, with a waist-belt studded with jewels, a black velvet cap with a white plume and baud of large pearls, and over all a tunic of black taffeta. Thus dressed, the prince was led by the grand-priors to the altar. Then the bishop of Nevers delivered an oration in praise of the Order, enjoining the young neophyte to emulate its good deeds. High mass was commenced, and when the gospel had been read Alexander Monsieur knelt before the bishop, holding a waxen taper in his hand, and solicited admission into the fraternity. On this the king rose from his throne, and saying aloud that he for the moment surrendered his state as a monarch in order to perform his duty as a father, placed himself by the side of his son. The young knight, having been received with the customary forms, the king pledged himself that so soon as his son had reached the age of sixteen he should renew his vows and conform in every way to the regulations of the Order. The young prince was then nominated to one of the best commanderies in the kingdom, and at once put in possession of its revenues, which amounted to 40,000 livres.

The same fate befel de Vignacourt as that which had struck down La Valette. He was seized with an attack of apoplexy whilst hunting, no doubt from the extreme heat of the summer sun, it being the month of August, 1622, and on the 14th September he died, at the age of seventy-five. His successor, Louis Mendes de Vasconcellos only survived his election six months, being nearly eighty years old at the time of his nomination. It seems that at this period it was the practice of the fraternity to elect the most aged knights to the supreme control, with a view to the frequent vacancy of the post. A more suicidal policy could scarcely have been conceived. Men worn out by a long life of excitement and enterprise could hardly be expected to retain sufficient energy to conduct with prudence and skill a government fraught with so many difficulties both from within and without. Where inflexible determination and vigorous promptitude in action were the essential requisites to a successful administration, these feeble and decrepit veterans, sinking almost into their dotage, were utterly useless. It is mainly owing to this fact that during the seventeenth century the power of the Grand-Master and the vitality of the Order itself, suffered so rapid and marked a diminution.

In pursuance of this short-sighted policy, Vasconcellos was followed in 1623 by Antoine de Paule, grand-prior of St. Gilles, who was seventy-one years old at the time of his election. He, however, succeeded in disappointing the general expectations of an early vacancy, by living to the age of eighty-five. De Paule’s rule is celebrated as being the epoch in which the last chapter-general was convoked until near the end of the eighteenth century. The unpopularity of these great councils had been steadily augmenting. The difficulty of maintaining the magisterial authority during their session was so great that no Grand-Master after de Paule felt disposed to call into existence a council in which he himself had so little weight and influence. Upon this occasion the Pope had insisted that the grand-inquisitor should take his seat as president of the chapter. De Paule and his council remonstrated, pointing out that it was diametrically opposed to the constitution of their Order that a stranger should assume the position of president in its chief assembly, and stating that the fraternity would never tolerate the intrusion. The Pope, however, was obstinate, and insisted upon the appointment being acquiesced in. The aged Grand-Master had not sufficient energy to support him in a broil with the court of Rome, so he yielded the point without further remonstrance. it is probable that the younger members of the Order would, in some open manner, have resented the intrusion thus forced on them, had not do Paule sent the majority of them away from the island on a cruise, holding the chapter during their absence. The statutes were all revised during this session, and the laws thus amended remained in force until the dispersion of the fraternity at the close of the eighteenth century.

Much dissatisfaction was caused by the repeated interference of the Pope with the patronage of the langue of Italy. Vacancies were constantly filled up by him with his own relatives and dependents without the slightest regard to the claims of seniority or the wishes of the council. The Italian knights became at length so discontented at this glaring misappropriation of their rights that they broke out into open mutiny, and refused to perform any of the duties of their profession, or to take their turn of military and naval service, on the plea of the injury which was being inflicted on their interests. Many abandoned Malta altogether, and returning to their homes, threw off the habit of the Order in disgust. Redress was sought in vain, and the Grand-Master was forced to submit to the usurpation thus made on his most valued privileges and patronage.

Throughout his rule, expeditions similar in character to those organized under de Vignacourt constantly took place. Useless for all national purposes, and partaking largely of a piratical character in the way they were conducted, they served only to irritate the Turks without in the slightest degree enfeebling their power. The knights of Malta were fast degenerating into a race very similar in character and pursuits to the robber hordes who swarmed within the harbours of Algiers and Tunis, and their deviation from the noble and disinterested conduct of their predecessors was apparent in every detail of their administration. The worldly prosperity, however, of those over whom they held away was materially increased, and the influx of wealth consequent on the many rich prizes they annually seized, raised the island of Malta to a position of opulence and commercial importance to which it had for centuries been a stranger. In the year 1632, a census was held, and the numbers then recorded as present in the island, with its dependency of Ooze, amounted to 61,150 souls. When L’Isle Adam, a century earlier, had first established his convent home there, the population barely exceeded 17,000. The Maltese had consequently nearly tripled their numbers during that interval beneath the flourishing sway of the Order of St. John, notwithstanding the fearful losses they had sustained during the siege of 1565.

Antoine de Paule died on the 10th of June, 1637, and was again succeeded by an aged knight. This was John Paul de Lascaris Castellar, of the langue of Provence, who was seventy-six years old when he was elected. lie was at the time bailiff of Manosque, and was not long in discovering that he had exchanged a very dignified and lucrative sinecure for a post which was by no means equally desirable. A fierce war was at this moment raging between France and Spain, and many knights of both countries, contrary to the express terms of the statutes, took part in the struggle. The French element then, as always, preponderated greatly in the convent, and the sympathies of the Order in consequence leant visibly towards that country. In revenge for this partiality, the viceroy of Sicily, espousing the interests of his master, the king of Spain, forbade the exportation of grain to Malta. As that island was almost entirely dependent on Sicily for its supply of provisions, this prohibition was tantamount to the creation of a famine. The Grand-Master was therefore driven to mollify the offended Spaniard by a strict enforcement of neutrality on the part of the convent between the contending powers. In pursuance of this resolve he caused a French vessel of war to be fired on, which, being commanded by one of his knights, had ventured to anchor in the channel between Malta and Gozo. Pacified by this act, the viceroy removed his embargo on the exportation of corn. On the other hand, however, the king of France was so irritated at the open insult shewn to his flag, that he prepared to seize all the possessions of the Order in France, and annex them to the crown. Fortunately Lascaris was able to prove to the king that he had only acted in the matter as he was bound to do by his statutes, as well as by the treaty under which he held the tenure of Malta. The affair was thus settled, and he and his convent left in peace.

In the year 1638, an action was fought between the six galleys of the Order and a Turkish squadron of three large ships of war which were engaged in convoying a number of merchant men from Tripoli to Constantinople. In this engagement the knights were completely successful, as they not only captured the whole flotilla, but also the three men-of-war which formed the convoy. They purchased this advantage at the cost of a large loss in killed and wounded, including some of their most distinguished captains. In 1640 six Barbary pirates were seized from the harbour of Goletta by the general of the galleys, and in 1644 three galleys under Piancourt overcame a large and formidable galleon after a most desperate conffict. In this affair the Turks lost 600 men, whilst amongst the captives was a sultana from the imperial seraglio, who was then on a pilgrimage to Mecca. This loss, following as it did the other disasters, so incensed the sultan that he despatched a herald to Malta, threatening instant war. Lascaris, on this, took prompt measures to insure the security of the island. Knights were summoned from all quarters to assist in the defence, and volunteers in great numbers flocked there, anxious to share in the renown of a second defence of Malta. Amongst these was the count D’Arpajou, who brought, at his own expense a reinforcement of no less than 2,000 men. The Order was so grateful for this munificent aid that the count was unceremoniously nominated commander-in-chief over all the forces in the island, a post rightfully belonging to the grand- marshal, the conventual bailiff of Auvergne. The alarm of invasion having proved false, the Grand-Master, on the departure of D’Arpajou, conferred several decorations on him and his descendants in commemoration of his zeal for the welfare of the fraternity.

The naval war with Turkey was, however, by no means suspended, for the Turks, having directed their armaments against the Venetian island of Candia, the galleys of Malta hurried promptly to the assistance of the republic. Other sea fights were also constantly occurring, in which the superiority of the knights over their opponents was usually very decided. In 1656 an engagement of greater importance than ordinary took place between the combined fleets of Venice and Malta on the one side, and that of the Turks on the other, at the entrance to the Dardanelles. In a contemporary newspaper published in London, called the Mercurius Politicus, there is the following graphic account of this action, which may be regarded as a type of most of those which about this period were of constant occurrence between the rival fleets:—

“London, September, 1656, from Venice, August 15, stili nose. The particulars of our last victory are now brought hither by the Sieur Lazaro Mocenigo, who entered here on the 1st of this month in a Turkish galley which was taken from those Infidels, and all the men in her had turbans on their heads. At his arrivall the people declared an extraordinary joy. All the shops were shut up, and the duke, accompanied by the senators, went and sang Te Deum, and the ringing of bells continued till next day in all churches. On the third day a solemn mass was celebrated by the duke and senators in the church of St. Marke, where all the ambassadors of princes were present. And that the rejoycing might extend to the very prisons, the senate took order for the releasing of all persons imprisoned for debt, and some of the banditi were also set at liberty.

“In the mean time the said Sieur Mocenigo, who had contributed so much of prudence and courage to the gaining of this victory, had first the honour of knighthood conferred on him by the senate, with a chain of gold 2,000 crownes value, and then was declared generallissimo in the room of the late slain Lorenzo Marcello, in memory of whom it is ordered there be a publick service celebrated next week at the publick charge.

“Now that so renowned a victory may in some measure be known, take the following relation:—

“A particular relation of the manner of the late victory obtained by the Venetians against the Turk.

“After the Venetian fleet had made a month’s stay at the mouth of the Dardanelles to wait for and fight the enemy, in the meanewhile arived the squadron of Malta, which consisted of seven galleys. On the 23rd of June last past the Captain Basea appeared in sight of the castles; his fleet consisted of twenty-eight great ships, sixty galleys, nine galeasses, and other small vessels.

“The navy of the republick was composed of twenty-eight great ships, twenty-four galleys, and seven galeasses, to which joyned (as was said before) the galleys of Malta, commanded by the lord prior of Roccelia. The navy of the republick kept in the narrowest part of the channel, so that the Turks could not come forth without accepting the battel which was offered.

“At the beginning the Captain Bassa raised two batteries upon land on both sides the river, the one on the part of Natolia, the other on the part of Grecia, thinking thereby to oblige our ships and galeas8es to forsake their station, and o facilitate their own going forth. The courage of the Venetian resisting their shot with undaunted boldness rendered the advantage they had taken unprofitable, whereupon the Captain Bassa, who had express order to attempt going out, upon the 26th of the same month in the morning, favoured with a pleasant north wind, made all his greatest ships to advance in good order, but, whether they durst not expose themselves, or for what other reason is not known, they withdrew behind the point of Barbiera, and thither also the Captain Bassa repaired with his galleys.

“About ten of the clock it pleased God to send a small north west wind which occasioned the Venetian navy to more, and the honorable Eleazer Mocenigo (who having finished the charge of a captain of a galley would needs continue with the fleet as a volunteer, and commanded the left wing) found means to advance with the Sultana of St. Marke, wherein he was, and passing beyond the Turkish fleet, endeavoured to hinder its retreat, keeping the mouth of the channel, and fighting valiantly.

“The battel being thus begun, the captain general, Laurence Marceilo, accompanied with the general of Malta, came up, intermingling with the rest of the Venetian commanders and vessels, fell to it pel mel. After the Turks had used their utmost endeavour to avoid the fight, being hemmed in by the Venetian fleet, and having no place left to escape, they were forced to fight, with the more eagerness because they had lost all hope of making a retreat, and so commended their safety to the conflict, whereby they gave means to the Venetians the more to exalt their triumph and glory over their enemies, all the enemy being totally routed by the sword, by fire, and by water, the captain Bassa only saving himself with fourteen galleys, which hath crowned the republick with one of the greatest victories that ever was heard of in former times.

“The number of the enemies’ dead cannot be known nor dincovered among so many ships and galleys taken and consumed by fire and water. About the shore there were seen huge heaps of (lead bodies, and in the bay of a certain little valley there appeared so great a quantity of caresses that it caused horror in the beholders.

“The number of Christian slaves freed on this occasion is near upon five thousand. That of the Venetians’ men killed and wounded doth not amount to three hundered, which makes the victory memorable to all ages.

“The battel lasted from ten o’clock in the morning until night, but the burning of the greatest part of the enemies’ fleet continued for two daies and two nights, on the first whereof the Venetians were forced to maintaine the fight, to subdue some Turkish vessels which stood out upon defence.

“The Venetians having reserved some of the enemies’ skips of all sorts in memory of the suceesse, besides eleven which those of Malta had taken, it was resolved upon by the Venetian commanders to burn the rest, to free themselves from the trouble of sailing with so numerous a fleet, and to keep their owne in readiness for all attempts.

“Three Venetian ships were burnt, two in the fight, and one by some other accident which is not well known, and their fleet received no other damage.

“The onely thing to be deplored in this successe was the losse of the Captain-Generall Marcello, who was killed with a cannon shot, and four men more who were next to him, after that with his own galley he had subdued a potent sultana, and (by the grace of God) seen the Turkish fleet in confusion, dispersed, defeated, and by consequence the great victory secured, and her upon the point of surprising another sultana. His soule hath received her reward in heaven, and his name will live with perpetuall glory in the memory of the world.

“Eleazer Moecenigo, by a new musquet-shot, lost one of his eies as he at first was attempting to prevent the Turks passage, notwithstanding which hee never failed to doe great things the whole time of the conflict.

“The valour, courage, and magnanimity wherewith all the Venetians and Malteses did behave themselves on this occasion may better be understood by the action than by discourse.”

The Lord-prior of Roccelia, alluded to in this report as in command of the seven Maltese galleys, was Gregory Caraffa, grand-prior of La Rocella, a member of the Italian langue. There still exists in the auberge of Italy in Valetta, a tablet commemorative of the action. It runs as follows:—

“D. O. M.

“Divog: Joanni Barns Ierosolymitanæ Militiæ Patrono ob gloriosam a Venetis de Turcica classe ad Dardanorum ora reportatam victoriam consilio opera et fœlici ausu fris DGregorii Carafa Roccellæ Prioris, et septem Melitentium triremium ducis. Qui primus in hostes invectus, ita cos deterruit ac profligarit ut ipsam etiam Imperatoriam nisi ejus ratis scopula hæsisset in suam potestaieil redegi88et. Vicit (amen, et captis ex adversarii8 prceter tre8 nia octo trirernibue allis minori bu8, innumerisq tormentt8 a’neie, turn sexaginta supra trecen (08 Turns in 8er&utem redactf8 et ex C’hristiunu bismille ac sex cenh8 libertati donati8 ad 3U08 triu,nphaults UI morem res’ersu8, vkit vicetq. Serentssirncs Reipublicce et IeroSol!/ enhance Religtoni8 bencmerentis8imu8 ac suce families decus irnrnortale. In tanks rn memoriam ten erabilis lingua Itallea uno multplici nornine donat dicat coneecrat Anno Domi MDCLVI.”^[1]

No action of greater importance than this had occurred since the memorable day of Lepanto. The Maltese galleys, although not numerous, appear to have done their duty nobly on the occasion, as the eleven vessels captured by them and borne off in triumph to Malta amply prove.

Whilst these maritime successes were attesting to the naval superiority of the Order, and increasing the renown in which it was held throughout Europe, the convent still remained the scene of acrimonious dispute and internal discord. The inquisitor, the bishop, and the Jesuits, all sought their own advancement, to the sacrifice of the authority of their common lord, the Grand-Master. In order to withdraw from their allegiance as many of the inhabitants as possible the bishop was in the habit of “granting the tonsure” to any one who demanded that distinction. By this mark, and without in any other way assuming the functions of the clergy, men claimed exemption from all but ecclesiastical authority, this being vested in the bishop. They secured freedom from all the imposts and duties to which the laity were liable, and their position became so favourable in comparison with that of their fellow- subjects that numbers flocked to the bishop to be received into the community. Had this state of things been suffered to continue, the Grand-Master would in time have found himself denuded of all actual power in the island of which he was the nominal sovereign. He therefore remonstrated most urgently with the Pope upon so outrageous an assumption. Urban VIII., who was at that time the pontiff, could not deny the justice of the complaint; he therefore issued instructions to the bishop forbidding him in future to grant the privileges of the tousure to any but such as were boná fide ecciesiastics.

The embroilment with the Jesuits had likewise gradually culminated in an open breach in consequence of the arrogance and grasping ambition of the latter. The quarrel which led to their expulsion from the island originated in the frolic of some young knights, who, during the carnival of 1639, disguised themselves in the habit of Jesuits, and in that garb were guilty of many scandalous disorders in the town. The reverend fathers, highly irate at this open profanation of their distinguishing costume, complained bitterly to the Grand-Master and council, who caused the offending knights to be arrested. Public feeling had gradually become so excited against the disciples of Loyola, that this act of severity, just and necessary though it might be, was very ill received. A tumult arose, in the course of which the prison in which the young knights were confined was broken open, the offenders released, and the Jesuit college pillaged and gutted. The insurgents were so exasperated, and were so numerically strong, that in obedience to the popular clamour, the expulsion of the detested fathers wan decreed. With the exception of four of their number, who contrived to conceal themselves, the whole body was at once compelled to leave the island. The relief was, however, but temporary, as it wan not long before the reverend fathers once more found their way back to the scene of their former exploits.

Meanwhile the Pope, who doubtless considered that he had secured the eternal gratitude of the fraternity by his action against the bishop, demanded the assistance of the Maltese galleys in a war in which he was engaged against some of the minor Italian princes who had formed a league against him. To this request Lascaris and the council were so weak as to accede, although such action was directly opposed to the fundamental principles of their institution. The princes, justly irritated at this breach of neutrality on the part of the Order, confiscated its possessions in their respective territories, nor did they withdraw the embargo till ample satisfaction and apology had been tendered.

Whilst thus engaged in political disputes, which materially affected the prosperity of his fraternity, Lascaris did not neglect the internal improvement of his convent and of the island over which he ruled. The city of Valetta was, at its earliest foundation, protected by a line of ramparts enclosing it, and cutting off the lower portion of the peninsula of Mount Seeberras from the mainland. Not deeming this single line of works a sufficient defence on the land side—the only direction from which an attack was to be feared—Lascaris engaged an eminent Italian engineer named Floriani to suggest such additions as he might deem necessary. In due course Floriani presented to the council a project for a new enceinte to enclose a considerable space beyond the Valetta front, the proposed line running across the peninsula of Mount Sceberras, nearly at the point of its junction with the mainland. This report was prefaced with a long list of the defects under which Floriani considered the defences of Valetta laboured, and concluded with the remark that, although he had been engaged during his professional career in the fortification of many towns, and had, consequently, obtained considerable experience in the art, he did not consider himself gifted with such high talents as would enable him to convert a bad work into a good one, and he was compelled, therefore, to suggest the enclosure of the first line within a second, the trace of which should be more in accordance with his ideas of perfection. The council was taken completely by surprise at this unlooked-for report. The knights had been accustomed to regard the enceinte of Valetta, with its very deep ditch and stupendous esearp, as a most powerful front, the whole of the stone for the building of the city having been quarried there so that it had attained proportions greater than those of any other similar work in Europe. They could not conceive that a line which they had always looked on with such high favour could, in reality, be so defective as was reported by Floriani; they therefore nominated a commission to investigate the matter. The report of that body was adverse to the scheme of Floriani, notwithstanding which the influence of the engineer was so great with the Grand-Master that the new project was adopted, and the work pushed forward for a long time with much vigour. After that it was suspended, and remained in an incomplete state until the year 1721, when it was finally completed. The suburb enclosed between the two lines has received the name of Floriana, after its designer. Floriani was admitted into the Order by Lascaris as a reward for the zeal and talent he had displayed in the work.

Malta is indebted to this Grand-Master for the splendid public library which ho established in 1650, and which gradually increased until it attained proportions exceeded by few similar institutions in Europe. This rapid augmentation was the result of a decree that on the death of a knight his hooks should not be sold with the rest of his property for the benefit of the treasury, but should be sent to the public library, either to swell its extent, or, in the case of duplicates, to be exchanged. This library is situated in a very fine building erected for the purpose by Lascaris. In addition to the usual assortment of works, it is particularly rich in old and rare books, as well as in illuminated missals, some of them of the most beautiful workmanship, and also in manuscripts of every description.

In the year 1652 the Order of St. John for the first time obtained possession of property in the New World. A knight, named de Poiney, had established himself in the island of St. Kitts, as commandant for a company of merchant adventurers who held the station under a grant from the crown of France. He persuaded the Grand-Master and council to effect a purchase of the island, which he represented as capable of adding materially to the wealth of the treasury. The cost of this transaction amounted to £5,000, for which sum the Order was invested with plenary possession of St. Kitte and all it contained, including slaves, provisions, and stores. This transfer was ratified by letters patent issued by the king, Louis XIV. De Poincy was appointed to the superintendence of the property, which was raised to the position of a bailiwick, and efforts were made to secure the islands of Martinique and Guadaloupe on similar terms, but without success. The results which de Poincy had foretold were never realized; the treasury received no return whatever for the outlay which had been made; and when, ten years later, the new bailiff died, it was found that the debts he had incurred in the management of the estate amounted to as much as its entire value. The fraternity, therefore, hastened to disembarrass itself of an acquisition rich in nothing but debts and encumbrances, and the unfortunate speculation was brought to a close by a transfer of the island, with its liabilities, to a company of French merchants in the year 1665, under whose control the plantations proved a far more lucrative investment.

Lascaris died on the 14th August, 1657, at the extraordinary age of ninety-seven. His end had been so long anticipated that intrigues without number were set on foot with respect to his successor. On the one hand appeared the prior of Navarre, Martin de Redin, who had secured the support of a very large party in the convent, whilst in strong opposition to him was the grand-inquisitor Odi, who cherished an inveterate antipathy to the Spanish knight, and sought in every way to thwart his ambition. Redin had been recently appointed by the king of Spain to the viceroyalty of Sicily, and at the moment of Lascaris’ death was absent from the convent at the seat of his government, but his party was too powerful for the inquisitor to overcome, although he made every effort to do so. He had even, with a view to eventualities, secured from the Pope a brief, declaring that any knight who had been guilty of canvassing or bribery, or who had employed either promises or threats to secure his election, should be ineligible for the post of Grand-Master. In pursuance of this decree, the inquisitor denounced Redin, and proclaimed to the electoral body that he was, on account of his various malpractices, which included simony, debarred from competition for the vacant dignity. The electors disregarded this notification, being, probably, not averse from taking the opportunity of proving to the inquisitor that his interference was distasteful. Redin was duly proclaimed Grand-Master, and Odi, having vainly protested against the election, appealed, as a last resource, to the Pope. Redin did the same, and mollified his Holiness by expressing readiness to resign his office if he were personally objected to by the court of Rome.

The Pope was far too politic to proceed to extremities against a knight who enjoyed the favour of the king of Spain so strongly as to have been nominated viceroy of Sicily. He therefore confirmed the election, and completed the mortification of the inquisitor by requiring him to announce in person to the Grand-Master and council the papal acquiecence in the nomination. Whether Redin had used any underhand influence at the court of Rome to secure this ratification is unknown; but it is very certain that he was not ungrateful to the Pope, since he shortly afterwards nominated the prior de Bichi, the Pope’s favourite nephew, to one of the richest commauderies in the langue of Italy, in open violation of the rights of seniority, and further presented him with a diamond cross of the value of 12,000 crowns. Nor did he stop here, for during his brief rule he continued to provide for various members of the Pope’s family, to the detriment of older and more worthy candidates. It may therefore well be credited that the accusations originally preferred against him by the inquisitor were well founded.

He did not remain long in his government, nor were his immediate successors more fortunate, several changes occurring within a very short time. Redin died in the early part of 1660, and was followed by Annet de Clermont, bailiff of Lyons, who only enjoyed his position during three months, and who died. from the effects of a wound which he had received at the capture 40’ of Mahometa during his younger days, and which opened afresh at this period, lie was in his turn replaced by Raphael Cottoner, bailiff of Majorca, who remained Grand-Master for three years, during which time he endeared himself to all classes of his subjects.

Raphael died in the year 1663, and was succeeded by his brother, Nicholas Cottoner, who had become bailiff of Majorca when that office was vacated by him. Only once before had two brothers been named in succession to the Grand-Mastership, the two Vilarets having attained to that honour. On the present occasion the pre-eminent virtues of the noble brothers Cottoner amply justified the selection. A century had now elapsed since Europe had rung with acclaim at the brilliant defence the Order had made in its island stronghold of Malta. From that time comparatively little had been done to keep alive the reputation that had been gained, so that in 1663, Nicholas Cottoner found himself ruling over a fraternity whose position in public estimation was very different from what it had been in the days of La Valette. Nevertheless, every now and then some brilliant exploit was performed to shew that the old spirit was not dead. Both at the battle of Lepanto and at that of the Dardanelles the galleys of the Order, though few in number, had been so handled as to cover the knights with honour. Now we have to record one more glorious, though unsuccessful, feat of arms; this was the part they took in the defence of Candia.

It has been mentioned that in the year 1644 the galleys of the knights captured a Turkish ship, on board of which was a sultana of the imperial harem with her infant son. The prize was taken into the port of Candia, where the young mother, who had left Constantinople on a pilgrimage to Mecca, died from the effects of slow poison administered to her before her departure by one of her rivals. The child was brought to Malta, where he was tenderly nurtured by the Grand-Master Lascaris, and educated in the Christian faith. He eventually took holy orders, and became a Dominican friar under the name of father Ottoman. After a life spent in travelling throughout Europe, he returned to Malta as prior of Porto Salvo, and died there in the year 1676.

The capture of his sultana had caused Ibrahim the most lively indignation, and he had in consequence threatened the direst vengeance against the island. Ills wrath was, however, eventually diverted to Candia, principally, as the Venetians asserted, on account of the shelter which had there been given to the knights and their prize. Whatever may have really been the immediate subject of quarrel, the Venetians and the Turks had ever held the most unfriendly relations towards each other, and it required but a spark to kindle at any moment the flame of war between them. Certain it is that before the close of 1644 Candia had been invaded by a Turkish force, and from that date the fight between the rival powers had raged in the island with unceasing rancour. The knights had rendered the most loyal assistance to the Venetians in this struggle, as by their profession they were bound to do. If, as was alleged, it was through an act of theirs that the horrors of war were called down on the unfortunate Candians, they were doubly bound to aid in the defence. Throughout the rule of Lascaris and that of his three immediate successors the strife continued to rage with alternating fortune, the chiefs of the Hospital maintaining their support both on sea and land. The Turks had, however, gradually gained the upper hand, and when, in 1663, Nicholas Cottoner assumed the dignity vacant by the death of his brother, the defence of Candia already presented a most unfavourable aspect. He nevertheless eontinued to render such aid as lay in his power.

The assistance which his predecessors had afforded during the lengthened struggle had been gratefully acknowledged by the doges of Venice. There is a letter from Bartuccio Valerio, the then doge, dated December 9th, 1656, addressed to Lascaris, in which he implores the Order to continue its usual aid to withstand the attacks of the Turks on the island of Candia, which were becoming more fierce and unrelenting than ever, knowing well that the extremity of the peril would be an additional inducement to the noble knights of Malta to endeavour, bot.h by sea and land, to gain back what had been lost, not only on account of their own thirst for glory, but also from their zeal for the general interests of Christianity. Another letter was addressed to Raphael Cottoner, in the year 1661, by the doge Domenico Contarini, in which he states that in that protracted war the sacred cross of Malta had ever been ready and faithful under all circumstances to the standard of St. Mark, and that the Venetian republic would not be slow in expressing its gratitude for the brilliant and glorious deeds of the Order, which were worthy of the sincerest esteem and love.

The closing event of the war was the siege of the capital, which withstood for twenty-seven months the efforts of the Turks. Irritated at the protracted duration of the conflict, the grand-vizier Achmet had in person led a numerous army against the island, and at once commenced the siege of Candia. Assistance was in this crisis rendered by almost every nation in Europe. Reinforcements were poured into the city from all quarters, and amongst others a body of 60 knights and 300 men arrived from the convent. The defence of the town was maintained with an obstinacy and determination that gained a celebrity almost equal to that of Malta, although it was not destined to obtain so happy a termination. Step by step the Turks advanced and won their way through the advanced posts. The effusion of blood on both sides was fearful, but the superiority of the besiegers, both in men and matériel, enabled them to secure the advantage. At length it was resolved, by a desperate sally, to endeavour to redeem the lost ground. The duke de Noailes, who was in command of the French contingent, undertook this operation, having expressly stipulated that none but Frenchmen should be concerned in it. The sally was attempted in the middle of August, 1669, and failed utterly. The French were driven back into the town with great slaughter, the duke de Noailles was wounded, and his second in command, the duke de Beaufort, killed. The situation now became utterly desperate, and after a long consultation and warm debate, de Noailles determined on abandoning the contest, and leaving Candia to its fate. In pursuance of this resolve he embarked his forces on the 20th August, and set sail from the island.

The Maltese contingent had by this time become so much reduced in numbers, owing to the casualties of a protracted siege in which they had occupied a very exposed post, that they were no longer in a position to continue the defence. They therefore made preparations for following the example of the French, deeming all idea of further resistance futile. They retired from St. Andrew’s gate, the point which had been intrusted to their charge, and embarked on the 29th August for Malta. These defections left the place almost entirely unprotected; nothing, therefore, was left but to capitulate, and on the 6th September, 1669, the city and island of Candia passed into the possession of the Moslem.

The reputation for valour which the knights of St. John had of old established did not in any degree suffer from their conduct during this memorable siege. The commandant of the town, Morosini, thus alluded to their retirement in a despatch to his government:—“I lose more by the departure of these few, but most brave, warriors than by that of all the other forces.” Brussoni, in his “Guerra dei Turchi,” also states:—“Among the objects that they seemed most to admire was the Grand-Master of Malta, and whenever he passed they viewed him with extraordinary veneration, and, looking on St. Andrew’s gate, where his knights had stood, they wondered and expressed to each other their high respect.” The Grand-Master here alluded to must have been the knight in command of the Maltese contingent, since Cottoner did not himself appear in Candia, the duties of his government being far too responsible and onerous to admit of his undertaking the service of a simple warrior in any case where the defence of his own island was not concerned. The republic of Venice entertained so high a sense of the assistance rendered by the Order during this war that it passed a decree authorizing all knights within its territories to appear armed at all times and in every place, a privilege which it did not concede to its own subjects.

The prosecution of the siege in Candia had not prevented the knights from continuing those cruises which had rendered their flag so redoubtable in the Mediterranean. In the year 1664 they joined with a French force under the duke do Beaufort, afterwards killed, as we have seen, in Candia, in an expedition against Algiers; but this result of the attempt was unfortunate, and they were compelled to return to Malta without having accomplished their object. This mishap was, however, speedily atoned for by a succession of triumphs, in which the names of Tremincourt, Crainville. and Hocquineourt attained for themselves the most brilliant reputations.

The fate of Tremineourt was a sad ending to a career which had opened so gloriously, but it added a yet brighter lustre to the fame of his memory. His vessel, during one of those violent storms which arise so suddenly in the Mediterranean. had been shipwrecked on the African coast, and he himself captured by the Moors. The celebrity of his exploits having become well known to the sultan he was forwarded to Adrianople to be disposed of in accordance with the imperial pleasure. Mohammed IV., who was at the time on the Ottoman throne, was so captivated by the high reputation and noble bearing of the youthful Tremincourt, that he made him the most flattering and tempting offers to induce him to abandon his religion and enter the Ottoman service. The hand of a princess of the imperial line was offered to him, together with an exalted rank in the service, but in vain. No inducements were sufficient to tempt the noble youth to forsake the faith of his forefathers. From persuasion Mohammed turned to cruelty, and endeavoured, by a series of hardships, indignities, and even tortures, to divert Tremincourt from the firmness of his resistance. Harsh measures did not, however, prove in any degree more successful than promises, and at length Mohammed, irritated to the last degree at his obstinate refusal, directed that he should be beheaded and his body cast into the sea, as unworthy of any more suitable burial. It may seem strange that the Ottoman rulers should so often have persevered in their endeavours to induce members of the Order who had fallen into their hands to abandon their faith and to brand themselves with the reproach of becoming renegades and traitors. Several previous instances of the kind have been recorded, in all of which the Moslem emperor was foiled by the firmness of his prisoners. Doubtless, however, many instances have been left untold where a contrary result took place. It must have been a somewhat trying ordeal to undergo, choosing between a high position, wealth, and distinction on the one hand, and the miserable lot of a galley- slave, if not a cruel death, on the other; and in cases where the natural love of life, or the craving for position was strong, no doubt the temptation was too great for resistance. It was not given to every one to have the faith or the courage of a martyr; all honour, then, to the noble Order which could count so many within its ranks. Tremincourt was indeed only following in the steps of his heroic predecessors, and in this sad ending to his brilliant but brief career enrolled himself a member of that glorious band who had sealed with their blood the faith which they professed.

1. “To Saint John the Baptist, the patron of the knights of Jerusalem, on account of the glorious victory gained by the Venetians over the Turkish fleet at the mouth of the Dardanelles, by the advice, the care, and the happy valour of Fr. Dom Gregory Caraffa, prior of Rocella and commander of seven Maltese galleys, who, being the first to attack the enemy, threw them into such disorder that he would have secured their flagship had his own vessel not run on a rock. He conquered, however, and having seized, in addition to three large ships, eight other smaller galleys with numberless bra’ guns, he captured 360 Turks, and liberated 2,600 Christians. He returned in triumph where he lives, and will live eternally, meriting well of the serene republic and of the Order of Jerusalem, and the eternal glory of his family. In memory of so great a deed, the venerable langue of Italy, with unanimous voice, has dedicated and consecrated this tablet in the year of Our Lord 1656.”