Decisive Battles Since Waterloo/Chapter 17
CHAPTER XVII.
BATTLE OF KOENIGGRATZ (SADOWA)—1866.
Space will not here permit the discussion of the Schleswig-Holstein difficulties which led to the war between Prussia and Austria in 1866, and the victory of Prussia at Sadowa. Briefly we may say that since the time of Charlemagne, Schleswig was a disputed possession between the Germans and the Danes, while Holstein has been practically in the same category. Reams of paper by the hundred have been covered with the diplomatic correspondence growing out of the various claims to these disputed provinces, and on several occasions the contending parties have resorted to the arbitrament of war. The war of 1863-4, between Denmark and Prussia, resulted in the defeat of the former. It was followed by the peace of Vienna, in which the king of Denmark resigned the duchies to Prussia and Austria, and agreed to a rectification of his frontier. He was also to pay an indemnity for the expenses of the war.
Hardly was the ink dry on the treaty of peace before Prussia and Austria began to quarrel over the possession of the duchies; the quarrel was partially stifled by the convention of Gastein (August 14, 1865), in which it was agreed that Austria should have the temporary government of Holstein, and Prussia that of Schleswig. Prussia adhered to the terms of the convention just long enough to secure from Napoleon III. a guaranty of the neutrality of France in case of a war between Prussia and Austria, and a treaty of alliance with Italy, who bore any thing but good-will to the Austrian government.
On the 11th March, 1866, Prussia published a decree asserting her jurisdiction over Holstein, and on the 24th of the same month she issued a circular calling upon the German states to declare whether they would support Austria or Prussia in case of war. Both countries prepared for war. In April and May, Austria called on Prussia to disarm, and the latter replied with a counter demand. There was much incriminatory correspondence between Bismarck and Mensdorff (the Prussian and Austrian ministers); the Federal Diet met at Frankfort; the Prussians occupied Holstein and the Austrians retired; Prussia, on the 14th June, announced the confederation dissolved, and on the next day she declared war against Hanover and Saxony.
On the 18th June Prussia declared war against Austria. Nearly all the northern states of Germany pronounced in favor of Prussia, while the southern ones sided with Austria. The two great armies advanced to meet each other, the Austrian northern army, under command of Field Marshall Benedek, entering Silesia, where it was joined by the Saxons. At the same time the southern army of Austria, commanded by Archduke Albrecht, faced the Italians. The Prussian army moved with astonishing celerity, and thus was able to fight the great battle of the campaign on Austrian soil. Prince Frederick Charles with the First Army and the Army of the Elbe, the latter commanded by General Herwarth von Bittenfeld, entered Bohemia on the 23d of June; he was victorious in severe engagements at Liebenau, Turnau, and Podall, on the 26th, Hoehnewasser on the 27th, Munchengratz on the 28th, and Gitschin on the 29th June.
The Crown Prince with the Second Army entered Bohemia on the 22d June, was repulsed at Trautenau the 27th, victorious at Saar and Trautenau the 28th, and at Köningenhof on the 29th. On the 30th communication was opened between the two armies; the king assumed command on the 1st July, and movements were immediately made to deliver a crushing blow to the Austrian army. By the success of the blow the Austrians would be crushed between the armies of Prince Frederick Charles and the Crown Prince.
Prince Frederick Charles, commanding the First Army, halted on Monday, July 2d, at Kommenitz, to give time for the Crown Prince to advance to Miletin, which is about five miles to the eastward of Kommenitz, and also to learn exactly what movements the Austrians were making. Reconnoitring parties were sent out, and as soon as he had received the reports of their commanding officers. Prince Frederick Charles decided to attack the Austrians. He ordered an immediate advance of his own army beyond Horwitz, and wrote to the Crown Prince an urgent request to advance in the morning from Miletin and attack the Austrian right flank at the same time that the First Army attacked the Austrians in front. By ten o'clock at night the troops were in full movement.
The general staff did not leave Kommenitz until an hour past midnight. The night was cloudy, but not dark, as the clouds were thin and the moon occasionally came out distinctly. The whole country was dotted with the remains of the bivouac fires where the First Army had been encamped. An eye-witness of the scene says these fires looked like large will-of-the-wisps, as their flames flickered in the wind, and they stretched out for many a mile, as the First Army alone contained 150,000 soldiers, and necessarily the camp of so large a force covered a very wide area. The clouds thickened during the night, and about daylight there came on a drizzling rain, which continued all the forenoon and for some hours after mid-day. To add to the discomfort of the troops, the wind steadily 
increased and considerably affected the soldiers, who had had little sleep and scanty food for the past two days.
At daylight, the various corps and divisions of the First Army had formed their line for attacking the Austrians. The main body of the army was at Milowitz, which is a small village on the road from Koeniggratz to Horwitz. General Franseky, commanding the 7th division was at Cesekwitz, holding the left, while the 4th and 5th divisions were at Pristan and Psauch, these divisions forming the right of the line. General Herewarth von Bittenfeld with the 8th and part of the 7th corps held the extreme right about ten miles from Milowitz. At four o'clock in the morning the advance began, and the army marched slowly up the first declivity between Milowitz and Dub, five miles nearer Kommenitz. The ground being soaked by rain, which had been falling for several hours, was difficult for the advancing army. The skirmishers managed to move ahead without much trouble, but the battalions advancing in closer order struggled more slowly along, while the wheels of the gun carriages sank heavily into the sticky mud, and the horses of the artillery were frequently brought to a halt.
By six o'clock the whole army was quite near Dub, where it halted for a time somewhat below the summit of the slope, as the ridge on which the village is built had completely masked all the movements of the troops. The Austrians were known to be on the other side of the ridge, and they were probably unaware that any Prussians were in the vicinity other than the advanced pickets. The Prussian cavalry videttes had been sent forward the previous evening and held the crest of the ridge, so that the Austrians were unable to come up and ascertain what was going on behind this thin screen of mounted soldiers. After a halt of nearly an hour to enable the columns to close up, Prince Frederick Charles ordered the advance of the horse artillery and cavalry. They moved forward as fast as the condition of the ground would permit, keeping their lines in splendid formation, when all the circumstances are considered. The Uhlans in advance had a dishevelled and bedraggled appearance, as the flags on their lances were soaked with rain and either clung closely to the staves or flapped sluggishly against them. When the bottom of the hill was reached, the trumpets sounded, the cavalry and horse artillery pushed toward the river Bistritz, and then the movement became fully apparent to the Austrians. Their guns opened quickly upon the advancing Prussians from a battery stationed in a field near the village of Dub, where the main highway crossed the Bistritz. The great battle which was to decide the relations between Austria and Prussia was now fully begun.
The battle opened at about half-past seven o'clock in the morning. The Prussian horse artillery replied promptly to the Austrian cannon, but neither side fired rapidly, and for fully thirty minutes the encounter consisted mainly of occasional shots. The king of Prussia reached the field a little before eight o'clock, and soon after his arrival the horse artillery was strengthened by the advance of other batteries, and orders were given for a rapid fire to be opened upon the Austrians. A rain of shot and shell was poured in upon them. Immediately after the beginning of this rapid fire on the part of the Prussians, the Austrian batteries came out in great force from all directions and returned the fire quite as vigorously as it had begun. The Austrian concentration of artillery was admirable, as the batteries appeared quickly from every village and every road all along the whole front of the Austrian line, which extended from Mockrowens on the right to Benatek on the left. The flashes of fire from the mouths of the cannon formed a continuous line, and the guns were evidently aimed with great precision; the shot and shell were dropped among the Prussian guns, occasionally dismounting a piece of artillery, blowing up a caisson, killing men and horses, and certain to have created great confusion in any but a thoroughly disciplined army. The Austrian fire was not alone directed to the Prussian artillery, as their shells were thrown up the slope in front of them, towards Dub, and one shell fell into a squadron of Uhlans who were close at the king's side. It buried itself in the ground, and then threw up clumps of mud some twenty feet in the air, and its explosion killed some two or three men.
As soon as the cannonading became furious, the guns of the Prussian 7th division opened upon the village of Benatek, which formed the Austrian right. For some time an artillery duel took place at this point, shot being given for shot, and neither side advancing or retreating. The same was the state of affairs in the centre; each side pushed many batteries into position and kept up a severe cannonading. The artillery fire was as even as it was possible to make it. The number of guns appeared almost precisely the same, and shot seemed to be given for shot, although the fire was so rapid that the reports followed as quickly together as in file firing with musketry. Considerable havoc was created on both sides, officers and men fell very rapidly, and a great many horses were killed or disabled. The Prussians pushed forward their batteries as fast as they could be brought up from the rear, and after a time their fire was considerably stronger than that of the Austrians.
Finally the Austrian batteries between Dohelnitz and Dohalicha were withdrawn a short distance up the slope, but the guns at Mockrowens remained in position, and at no point had the Prussians thus far been able to cross the Bistritz. As soon as the Austrians retired up the hill, as just before mentioned, the Prussian batteries turned their fire upon Miletin, with the result that by ten o'clock the battery at that village was also compelled to retire. During the progress of this cannonading some of the infantry had been moved forward towards the river, and while waiting to be brought into action they sheltered themselves under all convenient undulations of the ground. The 8th division advanced on the left side of the road, and, shielded by the rising ground, put its columns in position for an attack upon the village of Sadowa, while the third and fourth divisions on the other side of the road were put in readiness for storming Dohelnitz and Mockrowens.
Before their preparations were completed, it was observed that the village of Bistritz on the Austrian right had taken fire. The 7th division was ordered to take advantage of this circumstance and secure possession of the village, but the Austrians had not been driven out by the flames of the burning buildings, and made a stubborn resistance. Up to this time the fighting had been by the artillery only, but now it was hand to hand on the part of the infantry. The attack was led by the 27th regiment, who first forced their way into the orchards surrounding the village. The Austrians were on the other side of the burning buildings, and volley after volley was poured through the flames upon the assailants. While the 27th regiment engaged the Austrians in front, other regiments managed to flank the village, and by taking the Austrians in the rear, compelled them to retire with the loss of many of their number, who remained prisoners in Prussian hands.
It was about ten o'clock when the attack on Dohelnitz and Mockrowens was ordered. There was little opposition to the advancing columns until they reached the bank of the Bistritz; but from that point every inch of ground was stubbornly contended for. The Austrian infantry were in strong force at the approaches to the villages, and they poured a destructive fire upon the Prussians as they advanced. The latter were at great disadvantage, as the road was narrow and the Austrians were shielded by the villages and detached houses, so that they were able to inflict considerable damage on the Prussians while losing comparatively little themselves. The Prussian rifles were fired more rapidly than were those of the Austrians, but the latter were so shielded by the houses, trees, and smoke that the Prussians were rarely able to take accurate aim. A great deal of blind firing was done by the Austrians. They judged by the sound the positions of the attacking columns, and simply fired in the direction whence the sounds came. The cloud of smoke in the drizzly rain lay heavily on the ground, and for a considerable time it was impossible to see any thing through it, but, though slowly, the Prussians advanced steadily, losing men at every step, and in some places literally leaving the ground covered with their dead and wounded.
The fighting among the villages continued for nearly an hour; then the Prussians having reinforced their columns, made a dash upon the Austrian infantry, whom they drove back, but not far, the Austrians simply retiring a short distance up the slope until they were in line with their own batteries. The wood above Sadowa was full of Austrian infantry, while the wood between Sadowa and Benatek was equally well held, and it seemed next to impossible for the Prussians to be able to break through the barrier before them. General Franseky sent his infantry to attack the wood, and directed his artillery to open a vigorous fire upon the Austrian batteries. The infantry for a few minutes fired directly into the wood, but very soon discovered that their shots were practically wasted, as the Austrians were concealed behind the trees and suffered little from the Prussian bullets. Finding the musketry fire useless. General Franseky ordered a bayonet charge, and his men went at the wood with great vigor. The Austrians held to their position, and in this wood was fought the severest hand-to-hand battle known during the entire day. When the 27th Prussian regiment went into battle on that eventful morning, it had a strength of 3,000 men and 90 officers; when it emerged from the wood on the other side, having driven out the Austrians, there were less than 400 men in line and only 2 officers. All the rest were either killed or wounded. Every regiment of the division suffered nearly as much, though not quite as heavily, but they accomplished their purpose and forced the Austrians out of that strong defence.
The Austrian line had now been driven in on both flanks, but a new line of battle was formed round Lipa, a short distance farther up the hill and including the wood which lies above Sadowa. While this line was being formed, the Prussian artillery crossed the Bistritz and opened fire upon the new position of the Austrians. At the same time the smoke of General Herewarth's advance toward the Austrian left was distinctly visible. He had crossed the Bistritz at Nechawitz, about seven miles below the point where the 7th division crossed. There he found some Austrian cavalry and a brigade of Saxon troops, which he drove in the direction of Lipa. The Austrian commander seemed determined to retain his position, and his cavalry and infantry were massed in great force on the most favorable part of the hill.
The Prussian infantry which had occupied Sadowa and Dohelnitz was now sent to assault the wood above Sadowa, and skirting the wood between Sadowa and Lipa as they advanced against it, they lost heavily. The Austrians were in concealment, as in the wood which had already been taken, and they were supported by a battery at one end of the wood, which poured a destructive fire upon the advancing Prussians. Although the fire against them was very severe, the Prussians steadily fought their way forward, and finally dashed at the wood with the bayonet. The fighting was hand to hand as before, the Austrians disputing the possession of every tree and falling in great numbers. As the Austrians retired somewhat from their position, a chance was given for other batteries to come into play against the Prussians. About midway in the wood the latter suffered so terribly that the fight became a stationary one.
The Austrian artillery performed such effective work in this position that it seemed, a little after mid-day, as though the Prussians would be unable to advance any farther. They were obliged to fight very hard to retain the position they had gained. At one time most of their guns had been dismounted by the Austrian artillery fire, and where the ground was thickly wooded the needle-gun could not be used to advantage, so that the infantry fight was about even. Prince Frederick Charles ordered forward the 5th and 6th divisions which had been held in reserve. They piled their knapsacks and helmets on the ground before crossing the river. As they advanced, they passed the king, who had remained near the Bistritz, and in doing so they greeted him with loud cheers. They passed rapidly over the ridge of Sadowa and entered the wood, where very soon the increased rattle and roar of musketry told that they were actively engaged. The Austrian artillery poured volley after volley among them, and they only succeeded in advancing a few hundred yards. At one time they fell back, and for a little while there were great fears that the day was lost. They were torn and mangled by the fragments of the shells that dropped among them, and crushed by the splinters and fragments of the trees which the artillery fire tore away and dropped among them. Some of the officers and soldiers said after the battle that these splinters of wood were even more fearful than the shells.
On the right it seemed as if General Herewarth was checked, as the cloud of smoke from his artillery and infantry did not advance, but remained in one position. Franseky's division had suffered so terribly that it was not in condition to be sent forward to attack the Sadowa wood. In addition to the fearful losses they had sustained, they would have been exposed to the risk of being taken in rear by the artillery on the right of the Austrian line of battle before Lipa. All the Prussian artillery, excepting eight batteries, was engaged. These eight batteries were held in reserve in case of a reverse. At one time the firing in the Sadowa wood and of the Prussian artillery on the slope seemed to be retiring in the direction of the river.
It was very certain that the First Army was checked in its advance, even if it had not been actually driven back. Prince Frederick Charles became anxious, and sent couriers to the left to ascertain about the advance of the Crown Prince. In a little while it was found that some of the Austrian artillery near Lipa were firing toward the Prussian left, and the hope was anxiously entertained that this fire was against the advanced guard of the Second Army.
Prince Frederick Charles and his generals were greatly disturbed at the situation. They drew the infantry out of the battle and formed their cavalry in such a manner that it would be available either in pursuing the Austrians in case of victory or for retarding the pursuit in the event of defeat. General von Rhetz, the chief of the staff, went away with an escort to look for the Second Army. He returned very soon, bringing the joyous intelligence that the Second Army was forming for an attack on Lipa, and that the Austrian artillery on the right had been firing against the Crown Prince's advance. The word was passsed from one to another, and where gloom had settled shortly before, was now to be seen the expression of delight and hope. The infantry and cavalry were sent again at the Sadowa wood, which they carried, and the battery beyond it was stormed and taken.
The Crown Prince's columns were visible about half-past three in the afternoon advancing against Lipa across the slope in front of him. His artillery had silenced that of the Austrians, and General Herewarth again began to press against the Austrian left wing. For half an hour, perhaps, the Crown Prince's infantry vigorously engaged the Austrians at Lipa. The increasing volume of sound from their rapid volleys showed that they were advancing and that the Austrians were in full retreat. Then the order was given for the First Army to advance in full force. The artillery was sent up the slope at a gallop, coming into action whenever opportunity presented, and pouring a vigorous fire against the retreating columns, while the infantry which had carried the wood pressed forward at double quick and made a vigorous pursuit.
Prince Frederick Charles led his own regiment across the Sadowa bridge and along the road, and was followed closely by all his light cavalry. As he reached the top of the slope the retreating squadrons and battalions of the Austrians were within range of the Prussian artillery and crossed a depression lying between Lipa and Streselitz, a village about two miles farther southward. On the crest of the Lipa Hill the Prussian artillery halted and fired with great rapidity at the dense masses of fugitives. The cavalry was sent to press the retreat, but was prevented by the Austrian artillery, which fired vigorously from the Streselitz ridge. The cavalry charged repeatedly upon the Austrians, but their battalions could not be broken.
The Prussian artillery fire was now much more heavy than that of the Austrians, and had succeeded in driving the Austrian batteries away from the ridge. Some of the retreating Austrians moved in direction of Koeniggratz and others in that of Pardubitz, and the Prussians went in pursuit along both roads. The ground was thickly covered with dead and wounded. The wounded shrieked with fear as they saw the cavalry galloping .jpg)
toward them. They expected to be trampled to death in a moment, but by an order of Prince Frederick Charles, the cavalry moved around to the right in order to avoid them. At one time the Prince checked the pursuit to give time to reconnoitre the ground and make sure that no wounded Austrians were lying there.
Many of the Austrian infantry were captured by the pursuing cavalry. The pursuit was continued until nine o'clock in the evening and did not stop until it had reached the banks of the Elbe. The main body of the army came to a halt about seven o'clock. When the Prince returned from the pursuit, he was loudly cheered by all his soldiers. He immediately gave an order that every attention should be shown to the wounded and no discrimination between Prussians and Austrians.
During the battle the troops on both sides displayed the greatest bravery, and no distinction could be made in favor of one or the other so far as personal and soldierly valor is concerned. About 1,500 pieces of artillery were in action, almost equally divided between Prussians and Austrians. The victory was due to the Crown Prince's attack on the left flank of the Austrians combined with the attack in front, which had been of great effect and materially absorbed the fighting abilities of the Austrians. The latter had been engaged since daybreak, and after fighting until three in the afternoon were assailed by the fresh troops of the Crown Prince, which came up at that hour. The steady maintenance of the attack in front by the First Army precluded the possibility of the Austrians being able to repulse the attack in flank by the Second Army. The Prussians had not far from 250,000 men engaged in both their armies. The Austrians were slightly more numerous than the Prussians. The Prussians took 174 cannon and 14 flags; they admit in their official reports a loss of 10,000 killed and wounded, while the total loss of the Austrians was placed at 40,000, of whom 18,000 were prisoners. There were many stragglers, and the route followed by the retreating army was strewn with knapsacks, muskets, provisions, clothing, munitions of war, and kindred material, such as can always be found in the wake of a retreating and demoralized force.
The rapid firing of the needle-gun was an important factor in winning the battle of Sadowa. But the superior organization of the Prussians, their admirable strategy before the battle and equally admirable tactics during its progress, and the carefully timed junction of the First and Second Armies at the proper moment, were of more consequence than the operation of the weapon which has revolutionized the armament of the infantry soldier all over the civilized globe.
It was several days before the Austrians were able to collect their scattered battalions and put their army once more into any thing like a fighting condition. All the northern provinces of Austria were abandoned to the enemy, and the army retreated upon Vienna, halting occasionally to hold the advancing Prussians in check, but delivering no severe blow or offering any great obstacle to their progress. On the 30th July an armistice was granted, and two days later the king of Prussia reviewed his army fifteen miles from Vienna. After the review the Prussians started on their return, while negotiations for peace were rapidly pushed.
On the 23d August the treaty of peace was signed at Prague. By its articles Austria consented to the breaking up of the German confederation, and to Prussia's annexation of Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort. She also gave up Holstein and her political influence in Northern Germany, and made other concessions of minor importance. About the same time Austria made a truce with Italy, and on October 3d a definitive peace, by which the union of Venetia and Lombardy with Italy was recognized on condition that their debts should be assumed by Victor Emanuel's government. As a further result of her defeat, Austria was compelled to give legislative independence to Hungary; in 1867 the emperor of Austria was crowned king of Hungary, and the Austro-Hungarian monarchy was formed.
On the 16th July the king of Prussia invited the states of North Germany to form a new confederation. They responded with alacrity to the invitation, impelled perhaps by profound respect for the kingdom that had carried its victorious arms almost to within sight of the Austrian capital. The confederation lasted until the establishment of the German empire in 1871, and this empire may be said, in some respects, to owe its establishment to the victory of Sadowa.
