Niger Delta Ecosystems: the ERA Handbook

by Nick Ashton-Jones, with Oronto Douglas and Susi Arnott

THE ERA HANDBOOK TO THE NIGER DELTA
(THE HUMAN ECOSYSTEMS OF THE NIGER DELTA)

Environmental Rights Action 1998

Dedicated to Nnah Uabari, shot dead on the 25^th
October 1993 near Shell Flow Station No. 5, Kokokoro,
Ogoni, Rivers State, Nigeria

 ©1998 by Environmental Rights Action.
Niger Delta Ecosystems: the ERA Handbook, 1998
is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Licence
(international): http://creativecommons.org/licences/by-sa/3.0

 

THE ERA HANDBOOK TO THE NIGER DELTA
(THE HUMAN ECOSYSTEMS OF THE NIGER DELTA)

 

Dedicated to

NNAH UABARI

who was shot dead on the 25^th October 1993
near Shell Flow Station No. 5,
Kokokoro, Ogoni, Rivers State, Nigeria

 

Written by Nick Ashton-Jones
Scientific editing by Susi Arnott
Advice by Oronto Douglas

With the Support of Friends of the Earth International and
the Netherlands Committee of the World Conservation Union (IUCN)

Environmental Rights Action 1998

1	PROLOGUE	5
1.1	The First Edition	5
1.2	Additional Information	5
1.3	Support and Assistance	5
1.4	The Maps	6
1.5	The Figures	21
2	INTRODUCTION	30
2.1	What is ERA?	30
2.2	The ERA Philosphy	30
2.3	ERA Knowledge is Based upon Participatory Research.	32
2.4	What is Participatory Research?	33
3	WHAT IS THE ENVIRONMENT?	35
3.1	Defining Ecology and Environment in Terms of the Human Landscape	35
3.2	Analysing a Landscape	36
3.3	The Human Landscape: Economic Activity and Society	38
3.4	Landscapes are Alive	39
3.5	Ecosystems	40
3.6	Terms Used in the Descriptions of Ecosystems	41
3.7	Plants and Animals in Ecosystems	42
3.8	The Dynamics of Ecosystems and Viability	43
3.9	Real Ecology: Human Society	46
4	WHAT IS THE NIGER DELTA?	48
4.1	A Unique Ecosystem	48
4.2	Relief	49
4.3	Local Climate	50
4.4	Hydrology	50
4.5	Soils	51
4.6	Natural Vegetation	56
4.7	Natural Animal Communities	56
4.8	The Natural Ecosystem	57
5	THE NATURAL LOWLAND EQUATORIAL MONSOON (LEM) ECOZONE	60
5.1	Introduction	60
5.2	Tropical Rainforest: Definition and Classification	60
5.3	Correcting Some Misconceptions About the Rainforest	61
5.4	Distribution of the Natural Tropical Rainforest Biome	63
5.5	Micro-Climate of the LEM Rainforest	64
5.6	Physical Characteristics of the LEM Rainforest	67
5.7	Diversity of Tree Forms in the LEM Rainforest	69
5.8	Biodiversity of the LEM Rainforest	71
5.9	Plant Species of the LEM Rainforest	72
5.10	Animal Species of the LEM Rainforest	75
5.11	The Sub-Ecozones of the LEM Ecozone of the Niger Delta	77
6	THE NATURAL FRESHWATER ALLUVIAL EQUATORIAL MONSOON (FAM) ECOZONE	78
6.1	Introduction	78
6.2	The Complexity of the Natural FAM Ecosystems	78
6.3	Palms and Other Vegetation	80
6.4	Sub-Ecozones of the FAM Ecozone	81
6.5	Animal Communities of the FAM	85
7	THE NATURAL BRACKISH-WATER ALLUVIAL EQUATORIAL MONSOON (BAM) ECOZONE	88
7.1	Introduction	88
7.2	Mangrove Forests and their Distribution	88
7.3	Plant Species Composition of the Nigerian Mangroves	89
7.4	The Dynamics of Mangrove Ecology	91
7.5	Food Chains of the BAM Ecosystem	92
7.6	Animal Communities of the BAM Ecozone	93
7.7	The Brackish-water/Freshwater Ecozone	94
8	THE NATURAL SAND-BARRIER ISLANDS OF THE NIGER DELTA	96
8.1	The Formation of the Sand-Barrier Islands	96
8.2	The Balance Between Deposition and Erosion	97
8.3	The Natural Ecosystems	98
8.4	The Beach Strand Sub-Ecozones	99
8.5	Animal Communities of the Sand-Barrier Islands	100
9	THE NATURAL ESTUARIES & IN-SHORE WATERS OF THE NIGER DELTA	101
9.1	Introduction	101
9.2	Ecosystem Dynamics of the Estuaries and Inshore Waters	101
9.3	Plants and Animals of the Estuaries and Inshore Waters	102
10	PEOPLE AND RESOURCE-USE CONFLICT	105
10.1	Animal Populations and Ecosystems	105
10.2	Resource Cycles and People	105
10.3	The Ecological Problem of Modern Society	109
10.4	Resource-Use Conflicts	111
10.5	Is There an Easy Solution?	112
11	THE RESOURCES OF THE NIGER DELTA	105
11.1	Renewable and Non-renewable Resources	114
11.2	Land	115
11.3	Water	116
11.4	Fish	119
12	THE RESOURCES OF THE NIGER DELTA: FORESTS	123
12.1	The Nature of the Resource	123
12.2	Classification of the Forest Condition in the Niger Delta	123
12.3	Forest Resources by Ecozone	125
12.4	The Economic Problem of the Forest Resources	127
12.5	Economic Cost-Benefit Analyses of Forest Exploitation	128
13	THE RESOURCES OF THE NIGER DELTA: SOIL AND AGRICULTURE	130
13.1	Introduction	130
13.2	Agriculture in the LEM Ecozone	133
13.3	Agriculture in the Fresh-water Ecozone.	139
13.4	Agriculture in the Brackish-water Ecozone	142
13.5	Agriculture and the Barrier-Island Ecozone	143
13.6	A Summary of Agricultural Resources in the Niger Delta.	145
14	RESOURCES OF THE NIGER DELTA: MINERALS	146
14.1	Mining in the Niger Delta	146
14.2	Oil Mining in the Niger Delta: the Moral Issue	147
14.3	Oil Geology and Production	148
14.4	The National Importance of Oil In Nigeria	153
14.5	International Importance of Nigerian Oil	153
14.6	Natural Gas	154
14.7	Sand	157
14.8	Soil and Clay	158
14.9	Periwinkle Shells	158
14.10	Salt	158
15	THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF THE OIL INDUSTRY ON THE NIGER DELTA	159
15.1	The Nature of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)	159
15.2	The Potential Adverse Environmental Impact of the Oil Industry	163
15.3	The Actual Adverse Environmental Impact of the Oil Industry	165
15.4	Common Impacts	171
15.5	Specific Impacts	177
15.6	The Economic Costs of Oil Production in the Niger Delta	186
16	THE HUMAN ECOSYSTEMS: INTRODUCTION	189
16.1	The Human Landscape	189
16.2	The Natural Ecozones of the Niger Delta	190
16.3	The Human Economic Impact	190
16.4	Society	193
16.5	The Resulting Human Landscape	196
17	THE HUMAN ECOSYSTEMS: THE BOTEM-TAI DISTRICT	198
17.1	Location	198
17.2	Topography	198
17.3	The Soils	199
17.4	The Natural Ecosystem	199
17.5	Natural and Viable Society	200
17.6	Modern Society	201
17.7	The Economy	202
17.8	The Environment as seen by Local People	205
17.9	Social and Political Status	206
17.10	Addendum: Shell in Ogoni	207
18	THE HUMAN ECOSYSTEMS: THE ANYAMA DISTRICT	209
18.1	Location	209
18.2	Topography	209
18.3	Soils	210
18.4	The Natural Ecosystems	210
18.5	Natural and Viable Society	211
18.6	Modern Society	212
18.7	The Economy	213
18.8	Anyama as Seen by Local People	213
18.9	Social and Political Status of Anyama	214
19	THE HUMAN ECOSYSTEMS: SANGANA IN AKASSA	215
19.1	Location	215
19.2	Topography of Akassa Island	215
19.3	Soils	216
19.4	The Natural Ecosystem	217
19.5	Natural and Viable Society	218
19.6	Modern Society	219
19.7	The Economy	220
19.8	Social and Political Status of Akassa	221
20	THE HUMAN ECOSYSTEMS: OKOROBA-NEMBE	222
20.1	Location	222
20.2	Topography	222
20.3	Soils	223
20.4	The Natural Ecosystems	224
20.5	Natural and Viable Society	225
20.6	Modern Society	227
20.7	The Economy of the Okoroba-Nembe District	228
20.8	The Environment as seen by Local People	229
20.9	Social and Political Status of Okoroba-Nembe	230
20.10	Addendum: Local People and the Oil Industry	231
21	THE HUMAN ECOSYSTEMS: PORT HARCOURT	239
21.1	Introduction	239
21.2	History	240
21.3	Modern Development	241
21.4	The Modern City - Trends and Future Development	242
21.5	Ecological Setting	243
21.6	The Survey Locations	244
21.7	The Residents	245
21.8	Cultural and Social Issues	245
21.9	Economic Issues	246
21.10	Social Infrastructure and the Urban Environment	247
21.11	Social Infrastructure and the Urban Environment - Housing	248
21.12	The Urban Environment	248
21.13	The Psychological Issues	250
21.14	Participation in Urban Management	250
21.15	The Impact of Port Harcourt on its Region	250
21.16	Conclusions	250
21.17	Appendix: Statements by Residents	252
	INDEX	255
	BIBLIOGRAPHY	265