Waterloo, and was severely wounded in the assault of Namur. At the close of the campaign he returned to his studies and entered the gymnasium of Berlin, but was arrested as a Liberal and confined several months in prison. After his discharge, without a trial he was prohibited from studying in the Prussian universities, and accordingly went to Jena, where he took his degrees in 1820, but was again persecuted as a member of a students' society. He then went to Halle; but, being subject to surveillance, he sought refuge in Dresden, and afterward took part in the Greek revolution. He spent one year, in 1822-'3, in Rome in the family of Niebuhr, then Prussian ambassador, as tutor to his son. While there he wrote in German a journal of his sojourn in Greece under the title of “The German Anacharsis” (Leipsic, 1823). With the king's promise of protection he returned to Berlin in 1824, and went to the University of Halle, but was again imprisoned at Köpenick, where he wrote a collection of poems entitled “Wein- und Wonne-Lieder,” which on his release, through the influence of Niebuhr, were published under the pen-name of “Franz Arnold” (Berlin, 1824). Annoyed by persecutions, he fled to England in 1825, and supported himself for a year in London, giving lessons and contributing to German periodicals. He also wrote a tract on the Lancasterian system of instruction. In 1827 he came to this country and lectured on history and politics in the large cities. He settled in Boston, where he edited the “Encyclopaedia Americana,” based on Brockhaus's “Conversations-Lexicon” (13 vols., Philadelphia, 1829-'33). At this time he made translations of a French work on the revolution of July, 1830, and of the life of Kaspar Hauser by Feuerbach. In 1832 he received a commission from the trustees of the newly founded Girard college to form a plan of education (Philadelphia, 1834). He resided in Philadelphia from 1833 till 1835, when he accepted the professorship of history and political economy in the University of South Carolina, Columbia, remaining there until 1856, when he was appointed to the same chair in Columbia college, New York. He held this until 1865, and in 1860 became also professor of political science in the law-school of that institution, which post he held until his death. His inaugural address as professor at Columbia, on “Individualism; and Socialism, or Communism,” was published by the college. As early as 1851 he delivered an address in South Carolina warning the southern states against secession, and during the civil war was active in upholding the Union, frequently being summoned to Washington by the secretary of war for consultation on important subjects. In 1863 he was one of the founders of the “Loyal publication society,” of which he served as president. More than one hundred pamphlets were issued by it under his supervision, of which ten were by himself. His “Guerrilla Parties considered with reference to the Law and Usages of War,” written at the request of Gen. Halleck, was often quoted in Europe during the Franco-German war; and his “Instructions for the Government of the Armies of the United States in the Field” (Washington, 1863) was ordered by President Lincoln to be promulgated in the general orders of the war department, and has formed the basis for many later European codes. In 1865 he was appointed superintendent of a bureau in Washington that had for its object the collection, arrangement, and preservation of the records of the Confederate government, and in 1870 he was chosen by the United States and Mexico as final arbitrator in important disputes between the two countries, which work was not completed at his death. In 1844 he visited Europe, when he published in Germany an essay on “Extramural and Intramural Executions,” proposing measures which have since been adopted, and also “Fragments on Subjects of Penology.” In 1848 he revisited Europe, and published several essays on political science. He translated the work of De Beaumont and De Tocqueville on the “Penitentiary System in the United States,” adding an introduction and notes (Philadelphia, 1833), and was the author of “ Letters to a Gentleman in Germany, written after a Trip from Philadelphia to Niagara” (Philadelphia, 1834; republished under the title “The Stranger in America,” 2 vols., London, 1835). His other works are “Reminiscences of Niebuhr” (Philadelphia and London, 1835); “Manual of Political Ethics,” which was adopted by Harvard as a text-book (2 vols., Boston, 1838; revised ed., edited by Theodore D. Woolsey, Philadelphia, 1875); “Legal and Political Hermeneutics, or Principles of Interpretation and Construction in Law and Politics” (1838; 3d ed., edited by Prof. William G. Hammond, of Iowa university, St. Louis, Mo., 1880); a translation of Lewis Ramshorn's “Dictionary of Latin Synonymes” (1839; Philadelphia, 1870); “Laws of Property: Essays on Property and Labor” (New York, 1842); “Great Events described by Great Historians” (1847); “The West and other Poems” (1848); and “Civil Liberty and Self-Government” (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1852; new ed., adopted as a text-book by Yale, 1874). Special branches of civil polity also largely occupied his attention, particularly the subject of penal legislation, on which he wrote “Essays on Subjects of Penal Law and the Penitentiary System,” published by the Philadelphia prison discipline society; “Abuse of the Penitentiary Power,” published by the legislature of New York; “Remarks on Mrs. Fry's Views of Solitary Confinement,” published in England; “Letter on the Pardoning System,” published by the legislature of South Carolina. Among his more notable occasional papers are “Letter on Anglican and Gallican Liberty,” translated into German, and annotated by the distinguished jurist, Mittermaier, who also superintended a translation of “Civil Liberty”; a paper on the vocal sounds of Laura Bridgman, the blind deaf-mute, compared with the elements of phonetic language, published in the “Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge”; a series of political articles in “Putnam's Monthly” on “Napoleon” and “Shall Utah be admitted to the Union?” and nu- merous anniversary and other addresses. In 1867 he published “Reflections on the Changes Necessary in the Present Constitution of the State of New York,” “Memorial relative to the Verdict of Jurors,” and “The Unanimity of Juries,” and in 1868 “International Copyright and Fragments of Political Science, or Nationalism and Internationalism.” As regards the exterior relations of political economy he believed in free-trade, and his
