the best means of tranquillising the heart, and fortifying it against the attacks of all those passions and desires which must be regarded as diseases of the mind. Here again the Stoics, and especially Zeno and Chrysippus, are chiefly followed, although several hints can be traced to Aristotle, Plato, and even to the Pythagoreans.
The fifth book contains a reply in theaffirmative to the question, whether virtue is in itself sufficient to insure happiness, thus carrying out to its full extent the grand moral dogma of the Stoics in opposition to the more qualified views of the Peripatetics and Academics. The materials for this section were supplied by Plato, Aristotle, Theophrastus, Xenocrates, Speusippus, Polemo, Carneades, and the Stoics. (v. 12, 13, 18, 27.)
Although each of these five books is complete within itself and independent of the rest, yet we feel inclined to adopt the hypothesis of Olivet, that they were drawn up and digested according to a regular and well-imagined plan, and ought to be taken in connexion with each other as forming one harmonious whole. In fact, all the reasonings converge to one point. They all act in unison to defend one position—that man possesses within himself the means of securing his own happiness. To make this evident it was necessary to expose the folly of those alarms, and the weakness of those assailants by which tranquillity is scared away from the human bosom. Hence, the fear of death, and the fear of pain, are shewn to be the result of ignorance and error, while joy, sorrow, love, hatred, with the whole array of desires and passions which excite such tumults, are treated as mere visionary unsubstantial forms which the sage can dissipate by a vigorous exertion of his will.
The Tusculan Disputations are certainly inferior in recondite learning, in subtle reasoning, and in elaborately finished composition, to the Academica, the De Finibus, and the De Officiis ; yet no one among the philosophical essays of Cicero is more deservedly popular, or forms a better introduction to such studies, on account of the easy, familiar, and perspicuous language in which the ideas are expressed, and the liveliness imparted to each of the discourses by the numerous entertaining and apt illustrations, many of which being poetical quotations from the earlier bards, are in themselves highly interesting to the grammarian and the historian of literature. Certainly no work has ever been more enthusiastically, perhaps extravagantly, admired. Erasmus, after ascribing to it every conceivable excellence both in matter and manner, declares his conviction, that the author was directly inspired from heaven, while another worthy deems that his faith must have been of the same quality with that of Abraham.
The Editio Princeps was printed at Rome by Ulric Han, 4to., 1469; the second by Gering, Crantz, and Friburg, fol., Paris, about 1471, followed by several others in the 15th century. Of modern editions, that of Davis, 8vo., Camb. 1709, containing the emendations of Bentley, was long highly valued and was frequently reprinted, but is now superseded by those of Rath, Hal. 8vo., 1805 ; of Orelli, including the Paradoxa, and enriched with a collection of the best commentaries, Zurich, 8vo., 1829; of Kühner, Jenae, 8vo. 1829, second edition, 1835; and of Moser, Hannov., 3 vols. 8vo., 1836-37, which is the most complete of any,
4. Paradoxa.
Six favourite Paradoxes of the Stoics explained in familiar language, defended by popular arguments, and illustrated occasionally by examples derived from contemporary history, by which means they are made the vehicles for covert attacks upon Crassus, Hortensius, and Lucullus, and for vehement declamation against Clodius. This must not be viewed as a serious work, or one which the author viewed in any other light than that of a mere jeu d'esprit (" Ego vero, illa ipsa, quae vix in gymnasiis et in otio Stoici probant, ludens conjeci in communes locos, praef.), for the propositions are mere philosophical quibbles, and the arguments by which they are supported are palpably unsatisfactory and illogical, resolving themselves into a juggle with words, or into induction resting upon one or two particular cases. The theorems enunciated for demonstration are, 1. That which is morally fair (τὸ καλόν) is alone good (ἁγαθὸν). 2. Virtue alone is requisite to secure happiness. 3. Good and evil deeds admit of no degrees, i. e. all crimes are equally heinous, all virtuous actions equally meritorious. 4. Every fool is a madman. 5. The wise man alone is free, and therefore every man not wise is a slave. 6. The wise man alone is rich.
The preface, which is addressed to M. Brutus, must have been written early in в. с. 46, for Cato is spoken of in such terms that we cannot doubt that he was still alive, or at all events that intelligence of his fate had not yet reached Italy, and there is also a distinct allusion to the De Claris Oratoribus as already published. But although the offering now presented is called a " parvum opusculum," the result of studies prosecuted during the shorter nights which followed the long watchings in which the Brutus had been prepared, it is equally certain that the fourth paradox bears decisive evidence of having been composed before the death of Clodius (в. с. 52), and the sixth before the death of Crassus (в. с. 53). Hence we must conclude that Cicero, soon after his arrival at Rome from Brundusium, amused himself by adding to a series of rhetorical trifles commenced some years before, and then despatched the entire collection to his friend.
The Editio Princeps of the Paradoxa was printed along with the De Officiis, by Fust and Schöffer, at Mayence, 4to., 1465, and reprinted at the same place by Fust and Gernshem, fol., 1466. They were published along with the De Officiis, De Amicitia, and De Senectute, by Sweynheym and Pannartz, 4to., Rome, 1469; and the same, with the addition of the Somnium Scipionis, by Vindelin de Spira, Venice, 4to., 1470; besides which there are a very great number of other editions belonging to the 15th century. The most useful editions are those of Wetzel, 8vo., Lignitz, 1808, and of Gernhard, 8vo., Leipz. 1819, the former containing also the De Senectute and the De Amicitia, the latter the De Senectute. The Paradoxa were published separately by Borgers, 8vo., Leyden, 1826.
5. Hortensius s. De Philosophia.
A dialogue in praise of philosophy, drawn up for the purpose of recommending such pursuits to the Romans. Hortensius was represented as depreciating the study and asserting the superior claims of eloquence; his arguments were combated
