solid reputation, full though Seville then was of able painters. He may have had here the opportunity of copying some of the paintings of Michelangelo da Caravaggio; at any rate he gained the name of "the Spanish Caravaggio," owing to the forcible realistic style in which he excelled. He constantly painted direct from nature, following but occasionally improving on his model; and he made great use of the lay-figure in the study of draperies, in which he was peculiarly proficient. He had a special gift for white draperies; and, as a consequence, Carthusian houses are abundant in his paintings. To these rigid methods Zurbaran is said to have adhered throughout his career, which was prosperous, wholly confined to Spain, and varied by few incidents beyond those of his daily labour. His subjects were mostly of a severe and ascetic kind—religious vigils, the flesh chastised into subjection to the spirit—the compositions seldom thronged, and often reduced to a single figure. The style is more reserved and chastened than Caravaggio's, the tone of colour often bluish to excess. Exceptional effects are attained by the precise finish of foregrounds, largely massed out in light and shade. Zurbaran married in Seville Leonor de Jordera, by whom he had several children. Towards 1630 he was appointed painter to Philip IV.; and there is a story that on one occasion the sovereign laid his hand on the artist's shoulder, saying, "Painter to the king, king of painters." It was only late in life that Zurbaran made a prolonged stay in Madrid, Seville being the chief scene of his operations. He died, probably in 1662, in Madrid.
In 1627 he painted the great altarpiece of St Thomas Aquinas, now in the Seville museum; it was executed for the church of the college of that saint there. This is Zurbaran's largest composition, containing figures of Christ and the Madonna, various saints, Charles V. with knights, and Archbishop Deza (founder of the college) with monks and servitors, all the principal personages being beyond the size of life. It had been preceded by the numerous pictures of the screen of St Peter Nolasco in the cathedral. In the church of Guadalupe he painted various large pictures, eight of which relate to the history of St Jerome, and in the church of St Paul, Seville, a famous figure of the Crucified Saviour, in grisaille, presenting an illusive effect of marble. In 1633 he finished the paintings of the high altar of the Carthusians in Jerez. In the palace of Buenretiro, Madrid, are four large canvases representing the Labours of Hercules, an unusual instance of non-Christian subjects from the hand of Zurbaran. A fine specimen is in the National Gallery, London, a whole-length, life-sized figure of a kneeling Franciscan holding a skull. It seems probable that another picture in the same gallery, the "Dead Roland," which used to be ascribed to Velasquez, is really by Zurbaran. His principal scholars, whose style has as much affinity to that of Ribera as to Caravaggio's, were Bernabe de Ayala and the brothers Polanco. (W. M. R.)
ZÜRICH (Fr. Zurich; Ital. Zurigo), one of the cantons of
north-eastern Switzerland, ranking officially as the first in the
Confederation. Its total area is 665.7 sq. m., of which 625.2
sq. m. are reckoned as "productive" (forests covering 180.8
sq. m., and vineyards 16.9 sq. m., the most extensive Swiss
wine district save in Vaud and in Ticino). Of the rest, 21 sq. m.
are occupied by the cantonal share of the lake of Zürich, while
wholly within the canton are the smaller lakes of Greifen (3¼
sq. m.) and Pfäffikon (1½ sq. m.). The canton is of irregular
shape, consisting simply of the acquisitions made in the course
of years by the town. Of these the more important were the
whole of the lower part of the lake (1362), Küssnacht (1384),
Thalwil (1385), Erlenbach (1400), Greifensee (1402), Horgen
(1406), Grüningen and Stäfa (1408), Bülach and Regensberg
(1409), Wald (1425), Kyburg (1452), Winterthur (1467), Eglisau
(1496), Konau (1512), and Wädenswil (1549) — Stein was held
from 1484 to 1798, while in 1798 the lower part of the Stammheim
glen, and finally in 1803 Rheinau, were added to the canton.
In 1798 the town ruled nineteen “inner” bailiwicks and nine
rural bailiwicks, besides the towns of Stein and of Winterthur.
The canton at present extends from the left bank of the Rhine
(including also Eglisau on the right bank) to the region west of
the lake of Zürich. It is bounded on the E. and W. by low hills
that divide it respectively from the valleys of the Thur, and from
those of the Reuss and of the Aar. In itself the canton consists
of four shallow river valleys, separated by low ranges, all
running from S.E. to N.W. The most important of these is
that of the Linth (q.v.), which forms the lake of Zürich. To
the east are the valleys of the Glatt (forming lake Greifen) and
of the Töss (forming lake Pfäffikon), both sending their streams
direct to the Rhine. The highest point in the canton is the
Albishorn (3012 ft.) in the Albis range, which limits the Sihl
valley to the west. All the valleys named are traversed by
railway lines, while many lines branch off in every direction
from the town of Zürich. The first railway line opened (1847)
in Switzerland was that from Zürich to Baden in Aargau (14 m.).
From the town of Zürich mountain railways lead S.W. to near
the summit of the Uetliberg (2864 ft.) and N.E. towards the
Zürichberg (2284 ft.).
In 1900 the population was 431,036, of whom 413,141 were German-speaking, 11,192 Italian speaking, 3894 French-speaking, and 610 Romonsch-speaking, while there were 345,446 Protestants, 80,752 Catholics (Roman or "Old"), and 2933 Jews. The capital of the canton is Zürich (q.v.), but Winterthur (q.v.) is the only other considerable town, Uster (7623 inhabitants), and Horgen (6883 inhabitants) being rather large manufacturing villages. The land in the canton is highly cultivated and much subdivided. But the canton is above all a great manufacturing district, especially of machinery and railway rolling-stock, while both silk weaving and cotton weaving are widely spread. It is divided into 11 administrative districts, which comprise 189 communes. In 1869 the cantonal constitution was revised in a democratic sense, and with the exception of a few changes made later, it is the existing constitution. There is an executive or Regierungsrat of seven members and a legislature or Kantonsrat (one member to every 1500 resident Swiss citizens or a fraction over 750), each holding office for three years and elected at the same time directly by the vote of the people. The referendum exists in both forms, compulsory and optional: all laws and all money grants of a total sum over 250,000 frcs. or an annual sum of 20,000 must be submitted to a popular vote, the people meeting for that purpose at least twice in each year, while the executive may submit to a popular vote any other matter, though it fall within its powers as defined bylaw. One-third of the members of the legislature or 5000 legally qualified voters can force the government to submit to the people any matter whatsoever (initiative). Both members of the Federal Ständerat and the 22 members of the Federal Nationalrat are elected simultaneously by a popular vote and hold office for three years. The constitution provides for the imposition of a graduated and progressive income tax. In 1885 the penalty of death was abolished in the canton. (W. A. B. C.)
ZÜRICH (Fr. Zurich; Ital. Zurigo), the capital of the Swiss
canton of the same name. It is the most populous, the most
important, and on the whole the finest town in Switzerland,
and till 1848 was practically the capital of the Swiss Confederation.
It is built on both banks of the Limmat (higher up called
Linth) as it issues from the lake of Zürich, and also of its
tributary, the Sihl, that joins it just below the town. That
portion of the town which lies on the right bank of the Limmat
is called the "Grosse Stadt" and that on the left bank the
"Kleine Stadt." Till 1893 the central portion of the town
on either bank of the Limmat formed the "city" and ruled
the outlying communes or townships that had sprung up
around it. But at that time the eleven outer districts (including
Aussersihl, the workmen's quarter on the left bank of the Sihl)
or suburbs were incorporated with the town, which is now
governed by a town council of 125 members (one to every 1200
inhabitants), and an executive of 9 members, both chosen direct
by a popular vote. Much land has been rescued from the lake,
and is the site of fine quays, stately public buildings, and
splendid private villas. The older quarters are still crowded.
But the newer quarters stretch up the slope of the Zürichberg
(above the right bank of the Limmat) while the fine Bahnhofstrasse
(extending from the railway station to the lake) has the
best shops and is in the neighbourhood of the more important
public buildings.
Zürich has always been wealthy and prosperous. It has increased enormously, as is shown by the following figures. Its population in 1900 (including the eleven suburbs above named) was 150,703, while (without these) in 1888 it was 94,129; in 1880, 78,345; in 1870, 58,657; in 1860, 44,978; and in 1850 only 35,483. Of the inhabitants in 1900 no fewer than 43,761 (as against 20,928 in 1888 and 3155 in 1850) were not Swiss citizens, Germans numbering 31,125, Italians 5350, Austrians 4210, Russians 683, French 652, British subjects 157, and citizens of the United States 232. In
