28 1918, when, in conjunction with the American attack on the Meuse-Argonne front and the Belgian King's offensive from the Ypres-Yser lines, the British army broke through the Hinden- burg Line between Cambrai and St. Quentin. It was after the success of Haig's attack on this front that the German military command made up its mind to yield, and its results were gleaned in a steady and triumphant advance along the whole British front up to the day of the Armistice.
For his great services he was raised to the peerage as Earl Haig of Bemersyde, and was given a grant of 100,000. The Order of Merit was also conferred upon him. He was appointed commander-in-chief in Great Britain after returning from the Continent, but he held the position for only a few months, as it was then abolished. Thereafter he devoted himself primarily to furthering the cause of the ex-soldier.
HAINISCH, MICHAEL (1856- ), Austrian official and writer, president of the Austrian Federal Republic from Dec. 8 1921, was born Aug. 15 1856. He was originally a lawyer and an official of the Treasury and of the Education Department, but retired to his estates in Lower Austria and Styria, where he carried on model farming, became a leader of the Austrian branch of the Fabian movement, and one of the founders of the Central People's Library. Holding aloof from political parties, he was chosen Federal president because of his personal authority, although he was not a member of Parliament, nor a candidate for the presidency. He was a fertile author of works on sociology and politics: Zukunft dcr Oesterreicher (1892); Zur Wahlreform (1895); Kampf urns Dasein und Sozialpolitik (1899); Heimar- beit (1906) ; Fleischnot und Alpine Landwirtschafl. Once a Radical Socialist, he became with advancing years a Conservative Agra- rian. During the World War he introduced grain monopoly.
HAITI (see 12.824). The all-important event in Haitian affairs in the ten years 1910-20 was the military intervention on the part of the United States, developing into a close political and fiscal protectorate. The first half of the decade was marked by constant revolutionary turmoil and by rapid political dis- integration. In July 1911 President Simon was overthrown and on Aug. 14 1911 Cincinnatus Leconte, one of the foremost men of Haiti, became president. A year later (the night of Aug. 8 1912) the presidential palace was blown up and Leconte and a number of his followers killed. The National Assembly at once elected Tancrede Auguste, a prominent planter; he died the year after, and on May 4 1913 Senator Michel Oreste was elected to the presidency. December 1913 ushered in a period of political turbulence, and three military presidents assumed office in quick succession: Oreste Zamor, on Feb. 8 1914; Davilmar Theodore, on Nov. 7 1914; and Vilbrun Guillaume Sam, on March 4 1915. The last named, after withstanding the attacks of his opponents for several months, was compelled to seek refuge in the French legation in the night of July 26 1915, while two hundred political prisoners in the gaol of Port au Prince were massacred by order of one of his followers. At the funeral of the victims a party of mourners invaded the French legation, dragged out the ex- president, handing him over to the mob for death, and killed the ex-gaoler. Two hours later a U.S. cruiser arrived at Port au Prince and landed marines. U.S. forces occupied the country, dis- armed the natives, and restored order: and on Sept. 3 1915 Rear-Adml. Caperton, in command, declared martial law. Al- though U.S. naval officers assumed charge of most administra- tive functions, the Haitian governmental organization remained intact. On Aug. 12 1915 Sudre Dartiguenave was chosen by the Haitian Congress as president, and a treaty having been accepted by the Haitian Government, the U.S. Senate advised ratification Feb. 28 1916. Ratifications were exchanged at Washington May 3 1916, and the treaty was proclaimed on the same date. Modelled upon the American-Domingo Convention of 1907 (see 24.194), this instrument was designed to secure political stability and economic development in Haitian affairs by a political and fiscal protectorate, to remain in force for a period of 20 years. By its terms the president of Haiti appointed on the nomination of the president of the United States: (a) a general receiver of customs to take charge of the customs houses; (b)
a financial adviser to be attached to the ministry of finance;
(c) American officers to organize and command a Haitian con- stabulary (gendarmerie) which was to replace the Haitian armed forces, such officers to be later succeeded by qualified Haitians;
(d) engineers to supervise public works and sanitation. Haiti agreed not to increase the public debt and not to modify the customs duties without the consent of the United States; the United States undertook to intervene when necessary for the preservation of Haitian independence and the maintenance of a stable and effective Government. The treaty provisions were promptly put into effect, and determined entirely the subsequent course of events.
Attention necessarily centred upon the establishment of civil order, and this was fully accomplished through an efficient native geiidarmerie. Several hundred miles of much-needed roads had been constructed by 1921, and progress had been made in town sanitation. Fraud was eliminated from the customs houses, and dishonesty from national finances. On the other hand, friction grew out of the un- coordinated division of authority between the Haitian Government, the treaty officials and the military occupation. The nominal continuation of constitutional Government, superseded however in authority and operation by the military occupation, caused native irritation greater than complete military occupation for a proba- tionary term might have been expected to develop. Charges that wide-spread atrocities were tolerated by American officials were made in 1920, but upon minute investigation resolved themselves into specific instances promptly corrected.
The future of Haiti presented in 1921 the gravest problem of American influence in the Caribbean. Early termination of military occupation was, in the opinion of those in responsible charge, certain to result in reversion to old conditions. On the other hand, public sentiment in the United States did not view with satisfaction the definitive abandonment of the one great opportunity left the negro race to demonstrate, even after repeated trial, an ultimate capacity for self-government. Until 1921 the establishment of civil order had engaged the best energies of the American officials. With this accomplished, opportunity seemed to be afforded for rendering the further offices contemplated by the treaty in a way conducive to the ultimate assumption of civil authority by the Haitian Government, subject only to those reservations as to political stability and fiscal solvency in force in other areas within the range of American influence in the Caribbean.
There has never been any reliable census of the population. The estimates vary from 1,500,000 to 2,500,000; the one most commonly accepted in 1920 was 2,000,000. Foreign trade for the year ending Sept. 30 1920 amounted to $46,388,443, of which $18,990,032 were exports and $27,398,41 1 were imports. Exports to the United States for this period were $9,903,881; to France, $6,531,252; to the United Kingdom, $318,120. Imports from the United States were $22,773,762; from France, $1,451,700; from the United King- dom, $2,286,614. The chief articles of export for 1920 and their values were: cacao, crude, $606,801; coffee, $10,533,376; logwood and logwood extracts, $2,868,41 1 ; cotton, raw, $2,294,864; hides of cattle, $73,266; goa_tskins, $280,840; honey, $131,235; sugar, raw, $897,197; lignum-vitae, $114,923.
See " Reports and Inquiries regarding Conditions in Haiti " in Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy (Washington 1920), Appendix C. For an extreme criticism of the American Occupation, see "Self-Determining Haiti," James Weldon Johnson, in the Nation (N.Y.), Aug. 28, Sept. 4 and ii 1920. (J. H. Ho.)
HALDANE, RICHARD BURDON HALDANE, 1ST VISCT. (1856- ), British statesman, philosopher and lawyer (see 12.831), was raised to the peerage in March 1911, while still Secretary of State for War; and he was appointed at the same time, on account of his eminence in the legal profession, a member of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. That eminence was further recognized, in June 1912, by his elevation to the woolsack in succession to Lord Loreburn. His six and a half years' tenure of the secretaryship for war had resulted in the fashioning of a small expeditionary force always ready for war, and in the creation of a territorial army, which was far more efficient than the old Volunteers. During his three years' occupancy of the Lord Chancellorship Lord Haldane presided over the highest court of appeal with dignity and efficiency. He did an unusual thing, as Chancellor, by leaving the country and putting the great seal in commission in the autumn of 1913, in order to go to Canada and address the Bar Association at Montreal.
In the years before the World War, he had come mainly before the public as the strong opponent of Lord Roberts' campaign for compulsory service, which would divert, he considered, money and attention from the navy, Britain's chief defence;
