greatly rejuvenated. Six members were Radicals, Signer Motta being the only Conservative and Roman Catholic.
The recent presidents of the Swiss Confederation (little more than the chairmen of the Federal Executive) have been A. Deucher(igog);R. Comtesse (1910); M.Ruchet (1911) ;L. Forrer (i9i2);E. Miiller (1913); A. Hoffmann, (1914); G. Motta (1915); C. Decoppet (1916); E. Schulthess (1917); F. L. Calender (1918); G. Ador (1919), and G. Motta (1920); while the president for 1921, E. Schulthess, would in 1922 be succeeded by the vice-president, R. Haab. Of late years the Political Department (i.e. the Minis- try of Foreign Affairs) has become specially important. A resolu- tion of the Federal Executive in 1917 decided that this important department should ipso facto be attributed to the president. But, as the president changes annually, this plan was soon found very inconvenient, and so in 1920 a return was made to the older system that each councillor should retain the department assigned to him. Hence G. Motta would be Foreign Minister till Jan. i 1923, when the date of fresh election came round again.
The Swiss people adopted by a popular vote the principle of proportional representation for elections to the " Conseil Natio- nal " in Oct. 1919. But though it was expected that the Socialists would win many more seats they only won much fewer. The Radical majority was reduced from 102 to 60, in the Assembly of 189 members, thus losing its absolute majority over all other par- ties combined, but remaining the strongest single group. Forty- one Socialists (in 1917 but 19) and as many Conservatives were elected, and the new " Citizens and Peasants " party (a split from the Radical party) obtained 28 seats.
Proportional representation was also winning its way in the cantons, Aargau and Fribourg adopting it in 1920, followed in 1921 by Berne and the Valais. Thus 18 of the 22 cantons ap- proved it. Indeed in 1920 the canton of Fribourg, hitherto reckoned one of the most backward as to the recognition of popu- lar institutions, made a great advance, accepting in one day the facultative referendum, the initiative, the election of the Execu- tive by the people, and that of the Legislature by proportional representation. A number of Federal votes have been taken in recent years. The constitutional amendments related to infec- tious diseases (1913), the creation of an administrative court (1914), the levy of a war tax (1915), the imposal of a stamp tax on certain business papers (1917), regulations as to waterways (1918), a renewed war tax (1918), entry of Switzerland into the League of Nations (1920), and regulations as to hours of work (1920). A law (facultative referendum) as to sick insurance was also accepted in 1912. But of the " Initiatives " two were re- jected (proportional representation in 1910 accepted, however, in 1918), and a Federal tax in 1918, but in 1919 the detailed regu- lations as to the working of proportional representation in the " Conseil National," and a law abolishing gaming houses were accepted. Of four later votes, all in 1921, those relating to popu- lar approval of international treaties of a certain length, and new regulations as to motor-cars and to aviation were accepted, but a fourth relating to military courts of justice was rejected.
At the very beginning of the World War (Aug. 3 1914) the Federal Parliament handed over to the Federal Executive cer- tain extraordinary (emergency) powers of acting, and these powers, excluding all obligatory popular votes were found to be very convenient by the Federal Executive.
The entry of Switzerland into the League of Nations was accepted by a popular vote on May 16 1920, the majority in favour (mainly from the French-speaking cantons) being 97,051 votes and by nj to loj cantons. But in Feb. 1921 the Federal Executive declined to allow the passage through Switzerland of troops, raised to act as police in the case of the Vilna plebiscite.
Some of the members of the former Austrian Empire have sought a nearer connexion with Switzerland. Liechtenstein was indeed admitted into the Swiss postal, telegraph, and telephone system. But the Vorarlberg (and for similar reasons the Tirol) had not up to Aug. 1921 succeeded in being admitted as Swiss cantons, there being great fear felt in Switzerland of increasing the German-speaking population, and particularly of augmenting the number of strict Roman Catholics.
Finance. The finances of the Swiss Confederation were in 1921 (so said M. Musy, the Swiss Finance Minister) in a difficult posi- tion. Their backbone, in the matter of receipts, even in the pre- war period, was the amount of the customs' duties. But even at that period these produced less than heretofore. The last year when they showed an increase was in 1912 (3,500,000). After that time the decline was pretty steady, and the deficits higher and higher. It has been estimated that, while in 1913 they sufficed to defray about 84% of the total expenses of the State, in 1919 the amount met only 28% of these expenses (in 1913 3,360,000, and in 1919 only 2,520,000). And these expenses steadily increased after the outbreak of the war, though, of course, Switzerland was not one of the belligerent Powers. The deficits since 1914 are as follows: 1914, 901,000; 1915, 862,000; 1916, 665,000; 1917, 2,000,000; 1919, 2,475,000, and 1920, 3,980,000 in 1920 the receipts were 13,740,000, and the expenses 17,720,000. Despite the formal assurances of neutrality received from the principal combatants, the War Minister of Switzerland thought it essential to guard all its frontiers with a strong military force, and to erect costly new fortifi- cations (as at Moral), so that at the end of 1920 the total " mobiliza- tion expenses " amounted to no less than 47,500,000, while the military expenses in the accounts for 1921 were 2,880,000, and that only an estimate far inferior to the demands of the military authori- ties. Large loans (nine in number, to the total amount of some 31,200,000) have been contracted, but on these heavy interest has to be paid. Exchequer bills for two to five years at 6 % were also issued in order to assure the supply of necessaries of life. Special taxes were imposed, first a war tax (which produced 4,400,000), then a tax on war profits (which produced 11,120,000), next a " renewed " war tax (to last 16 years). The increased salaries and wages of the army of federal officials (including the railwaymen) were a further burden, and, naturally, as the cost of living increased, there came a fresh rise of salaries and wages to meet it a vicious circle. Even the telegraph and telephone rates had to be raised, not to speak of the postal charges, so that while formerly a letter within Switzerland cost only id. it cost 2d. in 1921 and a post card id. in lieu of }d. The charges on foreign correspondence have also been raised, so far as regards the transit from Switzerland to the outer world, for a letter from 2jd. to 4d., and for a post card from id. to 2.}d. As Switzerland produces very little in the way of raw materials, such as coal, these had to be bought at high prices, a fact which further raised the cost of travelling, hotel prices, and of all articles of home consumption. The only persons who have not felt these raised prices are the self-sufficing (or nearly so) peasants, who, in some cases, have even made large profits by the sale of their milk, cheese, butter, etc. Naturally the towns felt this rise to an extraordinary extent, and great distress and lack of employment resulted. The only cheering symptom, from the Swiss point of view, was that the currency exchange was almost everywhere favourable to Switzerland, save as regards American money. An attempt has been made (Feb. 1921) to raise provisionally certain customs duties but at Protectionist rates, so that the interests of the consumers are being sacrificed to those of certain trades, as well as (also provisionally) to limit imports to a certain extent. In 1912 the customs duties amounted to 6% of the value of the goods imported, but in 1920 not even to 3 per cent.
Hence the deficit in the Federal budget for 1921 was put at five or six million pounds, a huge amount for a country with under four million inhabitants. If the Federal finances were in this state, the cantonal and communal finances were no better.
It must be borne in mind that the direct taxes are paid by a very small minority of Swiss. In the case of the direct taxes the total amount, from 1914 to 1920, was about 70,000,000, while the indirect taxes only brought in some 18,000,000.
Switzerland is still predominantly an agricultural country, so that the majority of voters are peasants, with very narrow views. The industrial population is very much weaker politically, and is regarded with great disfavour by the Agrarian party, which desires, for its own objects, to set up a " Chinese wall " round Switzerland. But the land must have other manufactures than chocolate, con- densed milk, cheese, etc., and thus must import much which has to be paid naturally by its exports. Yet the narrow " Cantonal spirit " is still widely diffused in Switzerland.
The annual deficits on the Swiss State railways are especially great. It was officially reckoned that in 1918 the total Federal debt had attained a height of about 33 per head of the population, whereas in 1912 it had only been 17.
Army. Formerly detailed annual accounts as to the Swiss army (a purely militia force) were published. But since the outbreak of the war these accounts have no longer been issued. But an indiscre- tion of the semi-official Bernese newspaper, the Bund of Berne (June 23 1920), tells us that in June 1920 the numbers were 337,282, of whom 71,993 formed the " second reserve," the rest falling into the " Auszug " or " Elite " and the " Landwehr." The " Elite includes the younger men from 20 to 32, and the " Landwehr || or first reserve those between 33 and 40, while the " Landsturm reserve proper is composed of men between 41 and 48.
At the beginning of the war Col. Ulrich Wille was elected the " General," while Col. A. T. L. Sprecher von Bernegg became chief
