of the staff. It was thought necessary to guard all the Swiss fron- tiers, a policy which cost 47,500,000, and disorganized industry and agriculture to a very great extent. The German-speaking troops were sent, as far as possible to the Jura or the French-speaking or the Italian-speaking regions, while the French-speaking soldiers looked after the German-speaking districts. The object was to prevent any fraternization with the troops of the belligerents. Much inconvenience was caused by this mobilization. The military organi- zation was tightened up on the lines of the German army, and this greatly bothered the free Swiss citizens.
Naturally the military budget increased greatly, amounting in 1921 to 3,000,000, though this represented a reduction of about 250,000 on the demands of the military authorities. This great increase is to be explained in part, at least, by the increased cost of material. In 1910 the annual cost amounted only to 1,680,000.
Agriculture, Commerce and Railways. Censuses of cattle have been frequently made. In 1866 there were 553,205 cows, in 1886 663,102, in 1906 785,950, in 1911 796,909, in 1916 849,011, but in I9'9 738,896 and in 1920 only 729,999. The great fall in the num- bers is commonly attributed to the huge purchases of milch cows made during the war by Austrian and Hungarian cattle dealers, for export to Germany. Hence came a milk famine, and milk had to be " rationed." Potatoes and other such produce were also rationed and each householder had to plant them on his land, how- ever unsuited for this kind of cultivation.
In 1920 foot-and-mouth disease raged furiously in all parts of Switzerland, and even intercourse between neighbouring valleys was forbidden in order to try to stop the spread of the infection.
During the war certain branches of Swiss commerce flourished much, for, against the wishes and instructions of the authorities, there was much smuggling of all kinds of goods over the frontier, especially towards Germany and France, which, naturally enough, are Switzerland's best customers. The imports were often less than the exports. But in 1915 they were nearly equal in money value, the imports being slightly more than the exports. However, in 1916, the reverse was the case, the exports being 99,000,000, and the imports 93,000,000, but in 1917 the imports had again the best of it. In 1918 the imports amounted to about 96,000,000, and the exports to about 78,000,000. (Great Britain ranked third in each case.) In 1919 the exports amounted to 136,000,000, the highest figure ever attained, and the imports to 143,000,000. But in 1920 the imports rose to the prodigious figure of 169,000,000, while the exports dropped to 131,000,000.
As coal is practically non-existent in Switzerland it must be imported, naturally at considerable cost. Hence the imported supply had to be strictly " rationed " during the war, and the price increased enormously, especially in the case of domestic consump- tion. Of course, the factories suffered much, and the railways even more. Hence the electrification of the latter was pushed on as quickly as possible. But it was not possible to do this all at once, and so one saw locomotives driven by means of logs of wood. The number of trains was reduced, at one time very much indeed, and the fares pushed up to a great degree, which much hindered com- munications, even within the country. The first electrically-driven train went through the St. Gotthard tunnel early in 1921. The Lotschberg railway was opened in 1914, just before the outbreak of the war, and thus its prosperity was greatly let and hindered, while on the Valais slope, above Brieg, the unstable nature of the ground has caused many landslips, and thus entailed many costly repairs. But the great scheme for connecting the two stations in Geneva has been indefinitely postponed, owing to its excessive cost.
Social. In 1912 a vast scheme of insurance against sickness and accidents was accepted on a popular vote. But up to 1921 money was lacking to put it into operation, even though unsuccessful attempts had been made to " earmark " certain items of the revenue.
As everywhere else in Europe the unemployment problem was troublesome in Switzerland. The militia employed in the great mobilization came home, unused to work as before, while work was scarce owing to the lack of money, the higher cost of living, and the rise in the salaries and wages of nearly all classes. Naturally this want of employment was felt most in and near the great Swiss towns. And here came in a fresh complication the lack of dwelling houses and flats. This was, in part, due to the rush from the coun- try to the towns, and the crisis became very acute, so that in Berne, at least, all foreigners were ordered out of the town, so as to procure lodgings for Swiss workmen. In the rural districts neither unemploy- ment nor lack of dwelling houses was felt to anything like the same decree, though, no doubt, they existed to a certain extent. But these rural regions are inhabited by peasants who do not easily move from their homes, and are occupied in the cultivation of their small bits of land. As in Switzerland there are few persons of means independent of a trade or a profession, the disturbance in social life was very great, while the high taxes and high wages limited the power of employing labour.
Ecclesiastical. There were several welcome symptoms of the cessation of the " Kulturkampf," or religious strife following on the decrees of the Vatican Council. On Sept. I 1920, a papal nuncio for Switzerland was named, for the first time since 1873, in the per- son of Monsignor Luigi Maglione, titular archbishop of Caesarea.
He was already favourably known in Switzerland by reason of his love for that country, and his devotion in the case of prisoners of war and sick children. In Feb. 1921, the canton of Berne at last resumed its full legal responsibility for the reconstituted diocese of Basle, after holding aloof for many years, and thus recognized the bishop as spiritual head of the diocese, thus allowing him full liberty of exercising his functions within the canton for an unlimited period (and no longer for five or 10 years, as heretofore). Again, in the census of 1920 the " Christian Catholics " (the Swiss " Old Catho- lics," who previously had been included among the Roman Catho- lics) were numbered apart, though by reason of some error in the case of the canton of Tessin their number was put at 56,250; the real number is believed not to exceed 35,000 to 40,000.
On the other hand the Pope laid claim to the direct nomination of the bishop of Sion in the Valais.
The new census has put an end to the topsy-turvy fact that in the canton of Geneva the Roman Catholics outnumbered the Protestants so many French Roman Catholics have returned to France that the balance has been reversed.
Mention may be made of the fact that, in 1910, in the canton of Basle, the separation of Church and State was carried out, while in the same year women obtained the right of voting in the disestab- lished Protestant church of Geneva.
In the summer of 1920 reunion conferences were held both at Beatenberg and in Geneva, but almost wholly between various Protestant denominations.
The World War Period. During the fateful days immediately before the war broke out in 1914, the uncertainty whether there would really be war or whether commonsense would prevail kept the whole of Switzerland in a state of feverish anxiety, and when the loaded dice fell, very many persons in Switzerland were seized with panic. A wild assault was made on all provision establishments which supplied the necessaries of life, and these were bought in mad fashion and in quantities far above what was required. In many families stores of eatables were still found after the lapse of two years, and that quite apart from what had been spoilt. The banks and other establishments of a like kind had to withstand a regular siege, for everyone desired to get his property back. This haste had finally to be restrained by orders issued by the Government. As if by enchantment coins of small denominations disappeared from circulation. Not even at the post-offices was it possible to change Swiss banknotes for large sums. It was especially hard on the foreign tourists who were surprised by this sudden war. No one was any longer willing to change their foreign banknotes and cheques, formerly cashed so eagerly. Only the hotel keepers found themselves forced to receive cheques in payment for their accounts, and that despite the danger of incurring great losses by this act of friendship.
On the Swiss frontiers the blocking of all communications took strange forms. A typical case was that of Basle, close to the northern frontier. The tourists rushed in by thousands, and the railway trains were enormously delayed. With the keenest anxiety everyone sought for a carriage, a motor car, or some kind of cart so as to reach the frontier as easily and as quickly as possible. Many, whose cash had disappeared in consequence of the difficul- ties caused by the exchange, had to set out on foot, burdened with their luggage, to cover the great distance. These carts themselves were heavily laden with luggage, trunks and band boxes, while high up on these artificial mountains were perched travellers of every land, who to-day shared their common hard fate peaceably, but on the morrow were to oppose each other as enemies. Here was a German professor clothed in homespun, there an Englishman in tweeds, near by were some merry Belgian ladies with huge hats and elegant parasols, and, on top of all, countless schoolboys with caps of diverse colours. So was it all day long in the town. All this wild confusion was caused by the sudden interruption of international communications and the closing of the frontiers.
Thousands also were deprived at one fell stroke of their daily bread. Such were chiefly Italians, who desired to regain Italy over the St. Gotthard or the Simplon, often with only a little cash, sometimes quite penniless, and who were blockaded in Basle, and in incredible numbers, finally some 40,000 of them. All these unfortunates had to be cared for till it was possible for them to resume their journey. Quarters were found in private villas and other dwelling houses for the sick women and children. The Cooperative Society of Basle sent great carts filled with
