ered to issue orders that the supplies of hay and straw of each harvest should be commandeered. Inquirers were informed that the Military Department or the Chief War Commissariat office had, in the course of years, accumulated a great stock of corn, which was renewed every three years. When, at the very begin- ning of the war (Aug. 27 1914) the Swiss executive sanctioned the grinding of " full flour " and then, as is well known, ordered a corn monopoly for the Confederation (Jan. 9 1915), and also commandeered the entire corn harvest, the Chief War Commis- sariat office was the right authori ty to carry these orders out. But on Aug. i 1917 a central bureau for the provision of bread was set up, and on Aug. 10 1917 this was followed by a Swiss bread bureau. On Sept. 13 1918 a Swiss Provision Department was resolved on, and the bread matter was entrusted to it.
The entry of Italy into the war (May 23 1915) was a hard blow to Switzerland, making it more anxious than ever, but still worse was the declaration made by Germany (Feb. 1917) to the Allies of the unrestricted submarine warfare. By this step Germany won no sympathy from the neutrals, although the Swiss executive refused the suggestion of the United States to break off all diplo- matic relations with Germany. The Swiss held that this refusal was in accordance with their neutrality, as Germany was the sole land which supplied coal to Switzerland, for the Entente had now to send coal to Italy and could not supply it to Switzerland. At any rate Switzerland got coal from Germany, despite increased prices, cheaper than Italy did from its Allies.
The declaration of Germany (on Feb. i 1917) that the port of Cette lay outside the blockade zone was only a poor comfort for Switzerland. It ought to have secured previously a reasonable amount of imports. France strained its resources to satisfy the demands of Switzerland as far as it could, and sanctioned impor- tant traffic alleviations for the transport of necessaries of life. But this did not hinder the needs of Switzerland from being in- creased. On Feb. 12 1917 two "meatless" days per week were ordered, and on other days only a single dish of meat was allowed for each meal.
One misfortune followed another. Soon the Argentine Repub- lic announced (April 1917) that it had forbidden the export of wheat, even the supplies already bought by Switzerland.
However, it must not be thought that during this critical period Switzerland had simply folded its hands on its breast. It tried as far as possible to make itself independent of foreign countries by directing additional planting of potatoes, vegetables and materials for bread. Flowers disappeared from all gardens. Everywhere their place was taken by potatoes and other vege- tables. The pleasure parks and drill grounds in and around the towns were commandeered for the same purposes. In the even- ings, when the day's work was done, the workingmen of the towns were seen, pick and hoe in hand, busy turning up the ground which previously had served all purposes except the planting of useful things. The State ordered each parish to put gratis at the disposal of the poorer classes land for cultivation, and even swampy spots had in all haste to be prepared for cultivation. It is easy to understand that sometimes practical impossibilities were demanded. " One lives and learns." . Next, after the land had been prepared for cultivation, suitable kinds of manure were no longer to be had. Those who were not owners of cattle could pro- duce none. Artificial manure of good quality proved too dear to be purchased by poorer people. These were obstacles that must not be underestimated, but absolute need and the horrible period of the war overcame them all. Frequently the results of this compulsory planting did not even approximately reward the pains and work which had been bestowed upon it, but people were too filled with joy to despise the little that was actually the result. Thousands and thousands of families who previously did not produce necessaries of life had themselves to plant the amount of potatoes and vegetables required for their own use, and so considerably relieved the crying need. In 1917 120,000 trucks of potatoes were produced (the normal production was about 100,000 trucks). But there was no abundance of this commodity, for in many poorer families potatoes had to replace macaroni, and such like wares which had become more expensive.
These measures on the part of the Swiss authorities were indeed very drastic, but they could not have acted otherwise. The townsman, like the country farmer, was affected by them. The latter indeed had to submit to regulations which meant a revolu- tion in his ordinary business. He was ordered, without the slight- est regard to the number of his cattle, to plant a fixed quantity of his land in corn, in such and such a manner. With far less help than heretofore (for the men of military age were generally absent), the peasant women and their half-grown children had alone to do all the work. Not infrequently even their horses were taken away for service 6n the frontier.
When the peasants had planted, as ordered, the fixed quantity of land in corn, and so helped in the supply of bread, it turned out that now they had too little hay for their cattle. Experience taught here, as elsewhere, that an existing state of things could not be simply changed by the alteration of a screw in a machine. The aforesaid regulations reminded men of the State right of tutelage in the matter of dealings with corn, as had been usual in Switzerland as late as the i8th century. Great quantities of corn were procured and stored in granaries, in order to secure cheaper bread to the people in general.
The more profitable pasture business (e.g. breeding of cattle and milk industry) had developed from agriculture. Before the war there were big farmers in Switzerland, who only grew pota- toes and other vegetables enough for their own use. But the rest of the land was laid down in grass. So it is easy to under- stand that before the war Switzerland could export yearly huge amounts of cheese, butter, and condensed milk.
Against the introduction of " bread cards " Switzerland fought with tooth and nail. The workingmen in the towns were not willing to be deprived of their unrestricted amount of bread. A middle way was therefore tried in Switzerland the grinding of the corn less finely, and the prohibition of the sale of fresh baked bread (Feb. 12 1917). Further, in May, a decree directed that bread should only be sold 36 hours after it was baked. But al- ready in Oct. the final solution of this problem could no longer be deferred the daily ration of 9 oz. a head.
Bread and meal were joined on the same card. The bread card was split up into such small rations that the traveller could obtain in the hotels and restaurants per portion only ij ounces. This regulation was followed in Feb. 1917 by the order to make macaroni, etc., only out of eggs, and then on March i 1917 ap- peared the cards for rice and sugar. In the case of sugar about 2i Ib. extra were allowed per head for making jam.
Every month or two Switzerland had to start new negotiations with the belligerents, and to conclude new agreements. In May 1917, the negotiations about the management of the S.S.S. were brought to a conclusion, and an understanding was reached about the import of fodder and the export of live cattle. For the export of fodder from the Entente lands, Switzerland had had to export live cattle as " compensation." A new economic agreement be- tween Germany and Switzerland was also concluded.
A special chapter in the provisioning; of Switzerland was formed by the struggle about the price of milk. Here the consumers and the producers were often hotly opposed to each other. The work- ingmen in the towns reproached the peasants with illegal exploita- tion of the hard lot of the people, and that the latter often from time to time intentionally brought about a milk famine in order to drive prices still higher up. The " Town Associations " (a product of the war as against the country) took an active part, though not always with the same arguments, in this struggle against the peasants. These, on their side, refused absolutely, seeing that all kinds of fodder were always becoming dearer, and by reason of the general rise in prices, to supply their wares at the same fixed price. It was not always easy for the authorities in case of these quarrels to hit on a middle way which was good for all parties alike. One reason for the scarcity of milk was certainly that Switzerland temporarily exported many head of cattle, and this business wasted much milk. Then again, as butter and cheese rose in price, greater supplies of these articles were manufactured, as it was the more profitable business. All this took place, be it well understood, at the expense of the consumer, who had to suffer much thereby.
In order to assure nevertheless a sufficient supply of milk for the Swiss people in general, the Swiss executive empowered the Agricultural Department to fix the amount of the milk rations allowed to each parish, and sanctioned the delivery of milk at
