reduced prices to persons of small means. The maximum price for
a litre (if pt.) of milk was therefore fixed at 33 centimes (about
3^d.) in April 1917, but for people without means at 26 centimes
(about 2$d.). The State and the parishes had between them to
make up the deficiency. In order to create a closer organization
and to render the commerce in milk somewhat the same for all 22
cantons, a central bureau for the supply of milk and its products in
Switzerland was set up in Aug. 1917. It was empowered to issue
decrees, and to subject the whole industry to Federal control. That
was quite necessary, because it happened that the milk for the
inhabitants of the towns was already rationed (so in Berne on Jan. I
1918 the daily allowance a head was only three-fifths of a litre),
while in the country free trade prevailed in this business. As the
danger of a fresh rise in the price of milk became more and more
imminent, the town workmen opposed it vigorously. They threat-
ened a general strike if this most essential commodity should be
again raised in price. In the Chamber of Deputies of the Swiss
Parliament a compromise was made on this basis the Swiss execu-
tive to grant one rappen (less than a farthing) per litre to the milk
producers, and to pay the extra expenses of the transport this
was only to avoid a fresh rise in the price of milk (Oct. 1917). This
was well meant, but it turned out later to have been a mistake, since
from this time onwards rich and poor profited by this arrangement,
and the Swiss authorities had to pay out a huge amount of money.
For the time certain kinds of cheese (cream cheeses, etc.) were not allowed to be sold, and the consumption of butter was restricted. Finally, it was arranged that each landowner was obliged to deliver a fixed quantity of milk from each cow for consumption. When later in 1918-9 the rationing was still more limited (Oct., half a litre, and in Nov. one-third litre per head) this evil was not so much due to any intentional over-production of milk products by the peasants, but, as pointed out above, because many peasants by reason of the compulsory planting of corn, and dearer hay, etc., and the consequent hay famine, could afford only to keep a far smaller number of cattle. This circumstance may have affected the production of milk more than was stated above. It must be added that children up to a fixed age and persons over 60 could claim an extra ration so too sick persons, but for these a medical certificate was necessary.
At the beginning of the war people were much perturbed by the payment of 26 rappen (about } of a franc) for a litre of milk, and yet in 1921 the price was 52 rappen (about j franc), or an increase of 100 per cent. After the conclusion of peace and on the return of more normal economic conditions it was hoped that a slight allevia- tion would ensue. But in 1919-20 the foot-and-mouth disease in Switzerland increased to such a degree that at the end of 1919 the daily ration of milk in the towns sank to below the average in the war-time to one-third of a litre. The foot-and-mouth disease caused Switzerland a loss of about 5,500,000. Finally, in April 1920 this limitation was abolished. The milk famine was one of the greatest calamities that occurred in Switzerland during the entire war period.
It goes without saying that macaroni, groats and oatmeal, barley, cheese, butter, fat, and oils were all rationed, and even also, in part, potatoes and coals. The supervision took place by means of specially issued cards. The butt of the card had to be given up every month when new cards had to be procured. These bore every month differ- ently coloured signs of authenticity. A regulation was also made that in each household even necessaries of life, which were not rationed, should not be kept in quantities exceeding the supply required for two weeks.
Some necessaries of life were meted out with a very sparing hand : thus only rather over I Ib. of meal per head and per month was sanctioned, while, from Oct. 1917, white meal and groats were only allowed for hospitals and sick persons, and, even to procure these, corresponding bits of the bread and meal card had to be sacrificed. Other important necessaries of life were rationed as follows: maize about 14 oz., rice about 9 oz., and sugar about 20 oz. in each case per head and per month. But even these rations were not fixed fast-^on the contrary they were raised or lowered according to the existing supplies imported.
The restrictions that were most felt were those on butter and on fat for cooking. Foreign lard, even before the outbreak of the war, had been imported in great quantities. But afterwards the imports of this article fell off more and more in July 1917 it had decreased by 90 per cent. Hence the supervision of all kinds of fat was placed under State control, and in Jan. 1918 a so-called "Central Bureau for Fat " was set up to ensure the provisioning of the country with fat and oil, both for eating. The fat and butter cards (fat for eating and oils) were brought in on March I 1918. They allowed about 12 oz. of fat and about 5 oz. of butter per person each month. In June the ration of butter fell to about 3^ oz., and then rose again to about 9 oz. After the Swiss Government succeeded in buying in America (Jan. 1919) 15,000 tons of pigs' fat, it became possible to abolish the rationing of fat in July of the same year, but the butter cards remained in use for two months longer.
About the same time (July 1919) the rationing of macaroni,
Ets, oatmeal, and barley was abolished, and two months later t.) the same was done with the bread and meal cards, and ly with the " meatless " days.
For the poorer classes so-called "Distress Relief" was organ- ized, i.e. the Confederation, the cantons, and the parishes together paid over to these poorer people a portion of the price of certain necessaries of life. The principal objects of this charity were bread, milk, and potatoes. In the towns many classes of the population had to be supported in this manner in the town of Berne alone about 27 % . In the summer of 1918 the increase in the prices of necessaries of life rose to 120%, and in the autumn of the same year to 150%. Throughout the country the town workmen organized demonstrations against this increasing cost of necessaries, and these were combined with other matters of political discontent, these latter being stimulated by the events in Russia and in Germany and all leading up in Nov. to the general strike (see below).
Manufacturers in general accommodated themselves quickly to the state of things produced by the war. An exception was formed by the embroidery industry of eastern Switzerland, which was paralyzed through insufficient exportation and lack of foreign orders. On the other hand, the watch factories did very well, because they could manufacture parts of ammunition for the belligerents, which brought in much money, both to masters and men. The same thing happened with the great industrial magnates, who manufac- tured turning lathes, machines or parts of machines for the same 1 object, and exported them. The delivery of completely manufac- tured ammunition was forbidden by the Swiss executive as being contrary to neutrality, but it was not difficult to get round this prohibition. Each of the belligerents sought to arrange matters to! its advantage. Germany once claimed that every manufacturer: of western Switzerland who delivered articles to the Entente should receive no more German coal for his factories. France, on the other 1 hand, forbade the use of grease for machines and parts of machines which were to be exported to Germany. It was not always easy for Switzerland to steer the right course, without totally depriving its workmen of their wages.
The provisioning of Switzerland with coal proved often a very difficult and complicated matter. At the beginning of the war, and in part even up to the year 1916, it was not possible to complain in Switzerland of a coal famine, properly speaking, for the prices had risen by not quite a quarter per ton. Before the war one had to pay to the coal merchant (including his profits) about 2. 8s. per : ton, and in 1916 some 73. or 8s. more. But matters changed alto- gether in 1917, for not only did the price (including the profits of the coal merchant) rise to 5. 43. but restrictive measures were taken. By a decree of the Swiss executive of March 7 1917, no one was allowed to procure a supply of provisions sufficient for over three months. In Basle the so-called " Central Bureau for Coal " was set up. Any person who required more than five tons of German coal had to take a share in the aforesaid company, or else to pay an extra 2 per ton. The object was to secure to Germany an adequate money advance, probably in order to compensate her for the loss on the exchange. Germany was required to provide solvent guarantors, : so as to make sure that the money would be forthcoming. Later on, a local " Coal Supply Bureau " was set up in every town and every \ parish, which fixed the amount that any person could be allowea, and supervised the distribution. The prices for good coal (including merchants' profits) amounted to 10 per ton. New restrictions ; were often issued. The census of the amount of coal was soon fol- lowed by its rationing. It is well known that Switzerland, apart '. from peat and some slate coal, possesses no coal proper. That fact suffices to prove how dependent she is in this respect on foreign sup- i plies. A ' Swiss Coal Co." was formed, the object of which was to ' support financially efforts to find more coal in the country. Re- I searches were carried on all over the land, and a certain amount of coal of poorish quality was found in the cantons of Berne and of the Valais. Peat too was cut, wherever there was a possibility of the smallest supply. But one cannot be surprised that, despite the high j prices, the quantity of this coal fell far short of the amount required. ',
Soon after the scarcity of coal began, and particularly by reason of the rise in its price, the railways and the steamboats on the Swiss lakes were forced not only to raise their fares, but to take other restrictive measures. First of all the "excursion tickets" were suppressed, and then also the cheaper sorts of return tickets abolished (1917). The circulation of trains was reduced from March I 1918 by a third. In Nov. 1918 the State railways raised their tariff for goods by about 80%, and in the same month experiments were made with supplying locomotives with wood instead of coal, and this, in consequence of the ever-increasing coal famine, even in the case of fast trains. The cantons were each bound to deliver a certain quantity of wood, according to their size and their supplies. Canton Berne, in particular, had to furnish very large quantities of beech wood. Previously, the whole supply of fuel had been seized by the State. All public bureaux and post-offices had to reduce the hours during which they were open, schools had to have holidays, etc. One restricted railway scheme appeared after another, and from Dec. I the circulation of travellers, on those bits of the rail- ways which were still run by steam, was provisionally entirely sus- pended on Sundays and festivals. The only trains allowed on those days were those which carried milk. At the same time the distribu- tion of letters on Sundays was discontinued.
In this time of need Strenuous attempts were made by the Swiss authorities to electrify the railway lines, where this could be done
