HISTORY.] Vasarhely in Transylvania. The number of royal courts of justice in the mother country (including also Fiume) in 1877 was 66, and there were 375 circuit courts. Of the 23,033 criminals con demned in 1877, 13,237 or 57 47 per cent, were completely illiterate, 1193 or 518 per cent, were able to read, 8314 or 36 10 per cent, could both read and write, and 289 or 1 25 per cent, were persons of superior education. As to the punishments awarded, 34 persons were condemned to death (of whom only 3 were executed), 13 were sentenced to prison with hard labour for life, 124 to from 10 to 20 years imprisonment, 272 to from 5 to 10 years, 3537 to from 1 to 5 years, and 19,053 to less than a year s imprisonment. As regards the financial position of the kingdom, owing to the vast sums spent on state railways, the Fiume harbour works, and other large undertakings, the annual deficit rapidly increased until 1874, but from that date until 1878 it fell from about 33 to 21 million florins, the budget for the latter year giving a revenue of 219,846,016 and an expenditure of 240,967,435 florins. The national colours are red, white, and green. The only order is that of St Stephen. Crown and Arms of the Realm of St Stephen. The shield contains four quarters : 1. azure, three leopards heads crowned, or, for Dalmatia ; 2, chequy, argent and gules, for Croatia ; 3, azure, on a fess wavy gules, cotised argent, a marten courimt proper, in chief an estoile of six points or (Mars), for Slavonic!; 4. coupe: the chief azure, a demi-eagle issuant sable (Hungarian nation), in chief [a sun or, and] moon argent (Sze.klcr nation) ; the hase or, seven towers (Siebenbiirgen) embattled four and three gules, over all a fesse gules, for Transylvania. In base ente, a double-headed eagle rising, contourne", for Fiume. (jn an escutcheon of pretence, barry of eight, argent and gules, impaling, gules, on a triple mount vert, out of a crown or, a patriarchal cross argent, for Hungary Proper ; the bars argent representing emblematically the Danube, Theiss. Drave, and Save ; the triple mount, the Ta tra, Fsttra, and Matra. The whole is surmounted in chief by the Hungarian crown, with two genii or angel supporters. The lower part of the crown is a circlet inlaid with jewels and enamelled portraits, and heightened in the centre by a figure of Christ in majesty forming the middle portion of the arch or upper part of the crown, which is sur mounted by a slanting cross. Bibliographical Sources. K. Ballagi and P. Kiraly, A Magyar Birodalom leirdsa (Budapest, 1877-78), compiled with special reference to the new county divisions of 1870; Magyar Statistical Evkonyv: Statistisches Jahrbudi, 1874-77 (Budapest. 1875-7!)), issued by the Hungarian Royal Statistical Bureau ; K. Keleti and L. Beothy. Magyarorszdg Klatistikdja: Slatistique de la Hongrie, published in Hungarian and French, for the International Congress at Budapest, in 1876; S. Koiu-k, Magyar Birodulom statisztikai ke zikiimjve (Budapest, 1875) ; J. H. Sehwickcr, Statistic dcs Jfoniyreichex Ungarn (Stuttgart, 1877) ; P. Hunfalvy, Literarische lierichte aits Umjarn (Budapest, 1877-79, vol. iii.); add K. Keleti, JIazdnk es nepe (Pest, 1871 and 1873), and Utberticht der flero/kermig des Staats- gebie.tes der ungarischen Krone (Pest, 1871). A good native map for the new administrative divisions of 1876 is that of J. Hritsek, A Magyar korona or tidgainak ...kozigazgatdsi beosztdsa (Budapest, 1877). For the physical features the Ueber- tichtt-Karte von Ofsterreich-Umjarn (1:2,500,000) of A. Steinhauser (Vienna, 1870) leaves little to be desired. For bibliography of geographical and statistical works and maps published previous to 1871, see F. Grassauer, Landeskunde von Oesterreich-Ungarn (Vienna, 1875). II. HISTORY. The south-western portion of Hungary, as formed by the Danube, belonged to the Roman province of Pahnonia ; the south-eastern portion, as formed by the Theiss (Ptol. iii. 8, 4), to that of Dacia; the tract of country lying between these two rivers was inhabited by the Jazyges. As early as 274 A.D. Dacia was abandoned by the Romans to the Goths. In 376 the Huns crossed the Don, and, having overrun the intervening country, about 380 estab lished themselves in Pannonia, where under Attila their power was so vastly extended that in 432 the authority of the Romans entirely ceased. After the death of Attila (453) the greater part of the country fell into the hands of the Ostrogoths and Gepida?. These yielded in their turn to the Longobardi, who in 526-548 gained possession of the whole of Pannonia. When the latter removed to Italy 367 in 568, the Avars entered, but they were reduced to subjec tion by Charlemagne in 791-796. The history of Hungary really begins with the appearance of the Magyars in Europe about the year 884. It is generally admitted that they were a branch of the Turanian stock, and descendants of the ancient Scythians ; certain affinities of language show them to be related to the Lapps, Esths, and Finns. They are believed to have wandered from the Ural mountains to the region of the middle Volga, and thence to have migrated westward over the Dnieper and the Bug. At the time of their crossing the Carpathians about 889, under the lead of Almos, they were divided into seven tribes, united by a compact which guaranteed justice and equality among their members. At the death of Almos in 889, the chiefs of the tribes elected his son Arpad suc cessor. His followers overran the whole of Hungary and Transylvania, extending their conquests beyond the ancient province of Pannonia. From the time of the conquest to the year 1000, Hungary was ruled by dukes, the regal title being first assumed by Vaik (Stephen). The following table gives the dates of accession of the Arpad dynasty, which ruled over Hungary for upwards of four centuries : Dukes. Arpad the Conqueror 889 Zoltan 907 Taksony 947 Geyza 972 Vaik (afterwards Stephen I.) 997 Kings. Stephen L, the Saint 1000 Peter 1038 Aba Sarmi 1041 Peter (again) 1044 Andrew 1 1047 Bela 1 1061 Solomon 1063 Geyza J 1074 Ladislaus I., the Saint ... Coloman the Learned .... Stephen II Bela II Geyza II Stephen III Ladislaus II. and Stephen IV. (usurpers) Stephen III. (again) Bela III Emeric Ladislaus III Andrew II Bela IV Stephen V Ladislaus IV Andrew III 1077 1095 1114 1131 1141 1161 1162 1162 1173 1196 1204 1205 1235 1270 1272 1290 The following ruled from the extinction of the native dynasty to the commencement of the Hapsburg period : "NVenceslaus (usurper) 1301 Otho (usurper) 1305 Charles Robert (of Anjou) 1308 Louis L, the Great 1342 Maria 1382 Charles II 1385 Maria and Sigismond 1386 Albert of Austria 1437 Elizabeth .. ,.1439 Ulndislaus 1 1442 John Hunyady (Guber- -AAR 1453 1458 nator) Ladislaus V. (Posthum- us) Matthias Hunyady (Cor- vinus) Uladislaus II 1490 Louis II. . . 1516 Under Zoltan and Taksony the Hungarians made various expeditions beyond the limits of their own country, spread ing terror and devastation through Europe. They were ultimately checked, however, by the emperor Henry L, near Merseburg, in 933, and afterwards by Otho the Great at the Lech (955). These defeats caused the Hungarians to turn their attention to the consolidation of their power within their own territory. Geyza, who succeeded Taksony in 972, married a Christian princess, and also furthered the introduction of Christianity by entrusting the education of his son Vaik to Adalbert, bishop of Prague. On succeeding his father, Vaik applied for and received the title of " apostolic king " from the hands of Pope Sylvester II., and was crowned in the year 1000 under the name of Stephen. This monarch, known as " St Stephen of Hungary," laid the foundation of many existing institutions. He sub divided the land into counties, and provided it with an eccle siastical organization, establishing bishoprics, and founding churches, chapels, convents, and schools. Having elevated the bishops to the highest posts of trust and power in the state, he forced the people to pay tithes to the clergy. He also created a national council, consisting of the lords
temporal and spiritual, and of the knights or lower nobility,
