1849), and a constitution promulgated by the free will of the emperor. At this time efforts were made in the German National Assembly at Frankfort to form Germany into one integral empire, excluding Austria, the imperial crown being offered to the king of Prussia. This was violently opposed by the Austrian Government, and though the king of Prussia did not venture in the face of this opposition to accept the imperial crown, he concluded a treaty with the kings of Saxony and Hanover (May 1849), with the view of forming a strict union with the different states of the German confederacy to the exclusion of Austria. To this treaty the majority of the lesser states afterwards ac- ceeded, and a diet was convened at Erfurt (May 1852), under the presidency of Prussia, for the reorganisation of Germany. Austria, to counteract the efforts of her rival, invited the different states to send their representatives to Frankfort, where she assumed the lead. The legality of the assembly was at once acknowledged by Bavaria, and Saxony and Hanover were subsequently gained over to it. While matters were in this state disturbances arose in Hesse- CasseL The margrave invoked the assistance of Austria, while the people looked for aid to Prussia. Having re ceived the authority of the diet at Frankfort, Austria sent an army into Hesse, where they were confronted by another army from Prussia, and an immediate commencement of hostilities was looked for, but this was averted by a con ference held at Olmiitz, when Prussia acknowledged the right of Austria to enter Hesse. Soon after this Austria and Prussia convoked a congress of all the states at Dres den, where it was agreed that the final settlement of the affairs of the confederacy should be submitted to the de cision of the diet at Frankfort. Austria now proposed to the diet that all her provinces, including Hungary and Lombardo-Venetia, should be included in the German con federacy, but this bold proposal failed of acceptance. Austria now made strenuous efforts to develop the re sources of the monarchy by encouraging agriculture, in dustry, and commerce. The land was freed from the burdens of feudalism, taxes were removed, new roads were formed, and railways were constructed. A new tariff was adopted (July 1851), and negotiations were entered into with the other German states for a complete customs union with the Zollverein, but this was strongly opposed by Prussia and several of the other states in the union. A commercial treaty, however, was, after considerable negotiation, con cluded between Austria and the Zollverein (19th February 1853). The liberal concessions that had been made by the Government were rapidly disappearing, a rigorous military system of rule was being introduced, and centralisation was taking the place of the old provincial system. On the 1st of January 1852 it was announced that the constitution and fundamental rights were abolished, the ministers were declared responsible only to the emperor, trial by jury was set aside, the censorship of the press was again in operation. The influence of the Roman Catholic clergy and the Jesuits was also re-established. A popular outbreak occurred in Milan (6th February 1853), when a number of the military were lulled, but it was speedily suppressed. An attempt was made to assassinate the emperor in Vienna by a young Hungarian (18th February). In the quarrel between the Montenegrins and the Porte, Austria sided with the former, and Count Leiningen was sent to Constantinople (February 1853) to demand the redress of their grievances, which was granted. About this time Russia demanded the protectorate of the Greek Christians in Turkey, and this being denied, her troops crossed the Pruth and occupied the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (July 1853). Austria took a leading part, along with France and England, in condemn ing these proceedings and in endeavouring to bring aboiit peace. She also gave the Western powers to believe that she would actively co-operate with them in the defence oi Turkey, but afterwards fell back upon vague promises, and on April 20, 1854, entered into an alliance with Prussia, by which the two powers guaranteed each other s dominions from attack, and pledged themselves only to take an active part in the war when the interests of Germany appeared to be endangered. On June 14th Austria agreed with Turkey to occupy the Danubian principalities with an armed force, and by the end of August she had a large army there, which virtually brought the war on the Danube to an end. Austria still continued to use her exertions to bring about peace, and with this view a conference was opened at Vienna in March 1855, but the representatives of the several powers were unable to agree upon a basis. After the fall of Sebastopol she again reneAvcd her efforts, and having ascertained the terms on which the Western powers would be prepared to treat, she sent Count Ester- hazy to St Petersburg to lay them before the czar, by whom they were accepted, and a treaty of peace was signed at Paris, 31st March 1856. In August 1855 the emperor signed a concordat with the Pope, giving the church greater power in the country than it had ever possessed before. The clergy were to have unlimited control over all ecclesiastical matters and matters connected with education, and were to enjoy free communication with Rome without the intervention of the civil power. The Government now seemed desirous of re laxing somewhat their restrictions, and of making the people forget the troubles of 1848 and 1849. The mili tary rule was made less strict, and a general amnesty was proclaimed for political offences (12th July 1856). The em peror visited Italy in the end of 1856 and Hungary in May 1857, but the remembrance of past wrongs was still alive in the minds of the people, and he was everywhere received with the greatest coolness. Austria was opposed to the union of the Danubian principalities, and for some time refused to evacuate them, but at length (March 1857) her troops were recalled.
Sardinia had frequently remonstrated with Austria con cerning her policy in Italy, while Austria, on the other hand, complained of the attacks made upon her by the Sardinian press. A growing coolness had also sprung up between Austria and France on this subject, which reached its climax when the French emperor said to the Austrian minister, M. Hiibner, at the levee on the 1st of January 1859. 1859, "I regret that our relations with your Government are not so good as they were ; but I request you to tell the emperor that my personal feelings for him have not changed." The preparations for war were carried on with the greatest activity by Austria, France, and Sardinia. England sent Lord Cowley to Vienna to endeavour to arrange differences, but without success. P.ussia proposed a congress of the five great powers, and this was agreed to. War with but Austria demanded the disarmament of Sardinia previous France and to the congress, which the latter declined to agree to, and Sardinia, both sides prepared for war. Austrian troops poured into Italy, France was concentrating her forces at Toulon, and Garibaldi was organising a corps of Italian volunteers. The Austrians crossed the Ticino (April 26), and the French troops were marched into Italy. Napoleon left Paris on the 10th of May, and reached Genoa on the 12th, where he was next day joined by Victor Emmanuel. The first serious encounter took place at Montebello (May 20), when a strong body of Austrians was, after a desperate resist ance, defeated and put to flight by a body of French troops. The Austrians again suffered a severe defeat at Palestro (May 31). On 4th June the battle of Magenta was fought, in which the Austrians were, after a long and desperate conflict, defeated and put to flight by the combined army of the French and Sardinians, under the command of the
