Emperor Napoleon in person. The Austrians fought with great bravery and determination, but were not well officered, and the arrival of General M Mahon with his troops at an opportune moment decided the battle against them. They had about 75,000 men in the field, while the allies num bered about 55,000. The latter lost about 4000 men in killed and wounded, the former about 10,000, besides 7000 prisoners. Next day the inhabitants of Milan rose in insurrection, and the garrison fled. Pavia was evacuated on the 7th, and on the 8th the fortified position of Melegnano was taken after three hours hard fighting. The same day the allied monarchs made their triumphal entry into Milan. One stronghold after another now fell into the hands of the conquerors. The defeated army retreated to the further bank of the Mincio, where it was reorganised, and the emperor himself assumed the command. It then recrossed the Mincio, and took up a position near the village of Solferino. Here the allies came up to it, and both sides prepared for battle. The Austrian army num bered about 170,000 men, while the allied troops were not less than 150,000. The battle commenced early in the morning of the 24th June, and continued till late in the afternoon, The Austrian line extended for nearly 12 miles. The right and left wings of the Austrians were for some time successful, while Napoleon was using every effort to break their centre. In this he was at length suc cessful, and the wings were then obliged to retire in order that they might not be overflanked. The French lost in killed and wounded 12,000 men, the Sardinians 5000, and the Austrians 20,000, besides 7000 prisoners. The Austrians now abandoned the line of the Mincio, and fell back upon Verona. The allies crossed the Mincio, Peschiera was invested, and great preparations were made on both sides for renewing the contest. While all Europe was in the expectation of another great battle, news arrived that an armistice for five weeks had been agreed to and on llth July the two emperors met at Villafranca, and agreed to terms of peace. A conference was afterwards held at Zurich, and a treaty drawn up and signed (10th November 1859). By it Austria gave up Lombardy, with the excep tion of the fortresses of Mantua and Peschiera, to Napoleon, who was to hand it over to the king of Sardinia ; Italy was to be formed into a confederation under the presidency of the Pope, and Austria was to be a member on account of Yenetia ; and the princes of Tuscany and Modena were to have their possessions restored to them.
In March 1860 the emperor, by patent, enlarged the number and powers of the Reichsrath or council of the empire, and on 21st October promulgated a new constitu tion, in which he declared the right to issue, alter, and abolish laws, to be exercised by him and his successors only with the co-operation of the lawfully assembled diets and of the Reichsrath. The things to be settled with the co-operation of the Reichsrath were all legislative matters relating to the rights, duties, and interests of the seve ral kingdoms and countries, such as the laws connected with the coinage, currency, public credit, customs, and commercial matters. This was followed by proposals of similar changes for Hungary; and, on 27th February fol lowing, it was decreed that their former constitutions should be restored to Hungary, Croatia, Slavonia, and Transyl vania. At last-mentioned date a fundamental law was also promulgated for the representation of the empire by a Reichsrath, composed of two bodies, a house of peers and a house of deputies, and declaring the constitution and functions of each. It was declared to be the earnest wish of the Government that hyper-centralisation should be avoided. On 1st May the new Reichsrath was formally opened by the emperor at Vienna, when he declared his r-.onvictinn "that liberal institutions, with the conscientious introduction and maintenance of the principles of equal rights of all the nationalities of his empire, of the equality of all his subjects in the eye of the law, and of the partici pation of the representatives of the people in the legisla tion, would lead to a salutary transformation of the whole monarchy." Hungary, Croatia, Slavonia, and Transylvania declined to send representatives, claiming to have constitu tions and rights distinct from the empire. The Reichsrath sat till the close of 1862, occupying itself chiefly with eccle siastical affairs, the state of education, personal liberty, and the laws relating to tho press, commerce, feudal tenures, &c. In 1863 the emperor of Austria invited the different poten tates of Germany to meet him at Frankfort, in order to determine upon a scheme of reform for their common country. They almost all responded to the invitation except the king of Prussia, and the congress was opened (August 16) by a speech from the emperor. The proceedings, how ever, did not result in any important change, owing in great measure to the want of sympathy from Prussia, The death of Ferdinand VII., king of Denmark (15th November 1863), gave rise to a general ferment in Germany on the subject of the duchies Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg. To the Germans a united fatherland had long been a favourite idea, and they now saw a step towards its accomplishment. Notwithstanding the treaty of London (8th May 1852), which fixed the succession to the Danish crown, and was signed by Austria and Prussia, they denied the right of the new king, Christian IX., to the duchies, and laid claim to them as part of Germany. To enforce their claim the diet determined that they should be occu pied by an armed force, and Saxony and Hanover were directed to enter and take possession of Holstein. This was done without their coming into hostile collision with the Danish troops, who retired to Schleswig (December 1863). Soon after this, however, Austria and Prussia gave notice that they, as the chief powers in Germany, in tended to take upon themselves the carrying on of the war. Hostilities commenced (1st February 1864) when Austrian and Prussian troops crossed the Schleswig frontier. Den mark had trusted to England and France coming forward to maintain the conditions of the treaty of 1852 ; but these powers remained passive, and the Danes, after a short but heroic stand, were forced to succumb. An armistice was concluded (1st August), and a treaty of peace was eventually signed at Vienna (30th October), by which Denmark made over Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg to Austria and Prussia, But Austria speedily suffered terrible retribution for the part she had taken in this affair. By inducing Austria to join with her, Prussia succeeded in removing part of the odium of the proceeding from herself, and she also suc ceeded in obtaining the aid of a rival power to secure territories which she had previously determined to appro priate as her own. The acquired territory naturally lay very convenient for Prussia, and Austria would have will ingly enough given up her claim on it if Prussia had agreed to grant her a territorial equivalent in some other quarter of her dominions. This the latter power declined to do, but would readily have consented to a pecuniary compen sation. A convention was therefore held at Gastein (August 1865), which brought about a temporary understanding. Prussia was to receive Lauenburg on payment of a sum of 1,500,000 thalers, while Austria was to have the adminis tration of affairs in Holstein, and Prussia in Schleswig. Austria, however, was desirous of the formation of the duchies into a separate state, and supported the claims of the duke of Augustenburg to them. This was strenu ously opposed by Prussia, who regarded the public meet ings that were permitted to be held in Holstein in sup port of this as a breach of agreement. Austria referred
