new moon; but in the upper or northern provinces, it begins, as we have stated, with the day after the full moon. From the manner in which they are reckoned, it is evident that the Hindu months, both solar and lunar, neither consist of an entire number of days, nor are regulated by any cycle, but depend solely on the motion of the sun and moon. The time of their commencement is different on every different meridian; and a Hindu has no means of knowing beforehand on what day any month begins, excepting by consulting his almanac. The civil day in all parts of India begins at sunrise.
The Hindu eras have been the subject of much controversy. According to the dreams of Indian mythology, the duration of the world is limited to four yugs or ages, three of which have already passed, and the fourth, which is the kali-yug, is the last and most deteriorated. It is this only which has any reference to authentic chronology. It forms the principal era of India, and comprehends several others in common use, as the era of Vicramaditya, the era of Salivahana, the Bengalee era, and the cycle of sixty years.
The Kali-yug commenced in the year 3101 B.C. The year is sidereal, and begins when the sun enters the first sign of the Hindu zodiac, which at present happens about the 11th of April. Owing to the precession of the equinoxes the beginning of the year advances in the seasons at the rate of about one day in sixty years.
The Era of Vicramaditya is reckoned from the year 57 B.C., which corresponds to 3044 of the Kali-yug. This era, the years of which are called Samvat, prevails chiefly in the higher or northern provinces of India, and in Guzerat. Its name is derived from, that of a sovereign of Malwa, who, by defeating Saka, king of Delhi, acquired possession of the principal throne of India. Whether the year from which it is reckoned was that of the accession or death of this prince is uncertain. The years are reckoned in the same manner as those of the Kali-yug; and it may be remarked of the Indian eras in general that, though some of them profess to be counted from the deaths of their kings, or other historical events, they all commence at the time the sun reaches the same point in his annual course through the zodiac.
The Era of Salivahana is the year 78 A.D., which corresponds to 3179 of the Kali-yug, and 135 of the Vicramaditya. The name is derived from Salivahan, who is said to have reigned many years over the kingdom of Narsinga, and to have been a liberal encourager of the arts and sciences. It is generally used in records or writings of importance, but is most prevalent in the southern provinces of Hindustan. The years are called Saka.
The Fuslee Era, from the near coincidence of its dates with those of the Hegira, seems to have been imposed on the natives of India by their Mahometan conquerors. It is principally used in revenue transactions, and is pretty generally known over India. There are several eras of this name; but the most common is that which is reckoned from the year 590 A.D. At Madras the commencement of the Fuslee year is fixed on the 12th of July. In Bengal it begins in September, or with the full moon preceding the autumnal equinox.
The Bengalee Era is also supposed to be derived from the Hegira; but the year is measured by solar time, and therefore differs entirely from the Mahometan year, which is purely lunar. At the present time the Bengalee epoch is about nine years later than the Hegira,—the year 1245 of the Hegira having commenced in July 1829, and the Bengalee year 1236 in April 1829. The sidereal year exceeds the lunar year by 10 days 2112 hours nearly; consequently, by reckoning backwards, it will be found that the dates of the Bengalee era and of the Hegira coincided about the middle of the 16th century. History is silent on the subject; but it seems probable, that though the epoch of the Hegira was partially adopted in India, the Hindus pertinaciously resisted all attempts to disturb their ancient methods of reckoning the subdivisions of the year.
Besides the Indian eras here enumerated, there are some others which are less generally known, or which are followed only in particular provinces. The cycle of sixty years is also sometimes used, particularly in connection with the era of Vicramaditya. According to the Bengal account, the first cycle began 3185 years B.C.; and the year 1876 of our era is consequently the twenty-first of the eighty-fifth cycle. In the Telinga account the first cycle began 3114 B.C.; and the year 1876 is the tenth of the eighty-fourth cycle.
Fuller information regarding Indian chronology will be found in Prinsep's Essays on Indian Antiquities (1858), vol. ii., Warren's Kala Sankalita (1825), and Burnett's Elements of South Indian Palæography (1874).
Principal Works on Chronology.
To meet the wants of those who may desire to enter more fully into chronological studies, we subjoin a list of the leading works on the subject. In addition to the early Greek writings already named, there are the forty books (some fifteen only extant in their entirety) of universal history compiled (about 8 B.C.) by Diodorus Siculus, and arranged in the form of annals; the Pentabiblos of Julius Africanus (about 220-230 A.D.); the treatise of Censorinus entitled De die natali, written 238 A.D.; the Chronicon, in two books, of Eusebius Pamphili, bishop of Cæsarea (about 325 A.D.), distinguished as the first book of a purely chronological character which has come down to us; and three important works forming parts of the Corpus Scriptorum Historiæ Byzantinæ, namely, the Chronographia of Georgius Syncellus (800 A.D.), the Chronographia of Johannes Malalas (9th century), and the Chronicon Paschale.
Among the very numerous modern works on Chronology, the most important are the following, which are arranged in the order of their publication:—
1603. Opus Chronologicum, by Sethus Calvisius.
1627. De Doctrina Temporum, by Petavius (Denis Fetau), with its continuation published in 1630, and an abridgment entitled Rationarium Temporum, in 1633–1634.
1650. Annales Veteris et Novi Testamenti, by Archbishop Ussher, whose dates have by some means gained a place in the authorized version of the Bible.
1651. Regia Epitome Historiæ Sacræ et Profanæ, by Philippe Labbe, of which a French version was also published.
1669. Institutionum Chronologicarum libri duo, by Bishop Beveridge.
1672. Chronicus Canon Ægyptiacus, Ebraicus, et Græcus, by Sir John Marsham.
1687. L'Antiquité des Temps rétablie et défendue, by Paul Pezron, with its Defense, 1691.
1701. De Veteribus Græcorum Romanorumque Cyclis, by Henry Dodwell.
1728. The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms amended, by Sir Isaac Newton, remarkable as an attempt to construct a system on new bases, independent of the Greek chronologers.
1738. Chronologie de I'histoire sainte, by Alphonse des Vignollos.
1744. Tablettes chronologiques de I'histoire universelle, by N. Lenglet-Dufresnoy.
1750. The first edition in one vol. 4to of L'Art de Vérifier les Dates, which in its third edition (1818–1831) appeared in 38 vols. 8vo., a colossal monument of the learning and labours of various members of the Benedictine Congregation of Saint-Maur.
1752. Chronological Antiquities, by John Jackson.
1754. Chronology and History of the World, by John Blair; new edition, much enlarged, 1857.
1784. A System of Chronology, by Playfair.
