CHRONOMETER, a watch of special construction to measure time with great accuracy, chiefly used in determining the longitude at sea. See Clocks and Watches.
CHRUDIM, a town in Bohemia, Austria, situated on the Chrudimka, a tributary of the Elbe, about 63 miles E.S.E. of Prague. It is the capital of a circle, and has a district court-house. There are five churches in the town, besides a monastery of the Capuchins, a high school, an infirmary, and an alms-house. Calico-printing is carried on to some extent. Population, 9400.
CHRYSIPPUS (c. 280-206 B.C.), one of the greatest of the Stoics, was born probably in 280 B.C., at Soli, in Cilicia. Being robbed of his property, he visited Athens, and attended the lectures, possibly of Zeno, and certainly of Cleanthes. The latter he succeeded as recognized chief of the school. He is also said to have been instructed in the doctrines of the Middle Academy by Arcesilaus and Lacydes. Chrysippus was the author of a prodigious number of works, which, though extremely prolix and disfigured by great obscurity and carelessness of style and language, were distinguished by extensive learning and considerable acuteness. But nothing has come down to us except small fragments, and from these it is difficult to discover what doctrines are originally due to Chrysippus. We know, however, that he made considerable emendations on the theory of Zeno and Cleanthes. With regard to the relation of moral to physical science, he reversed their conclusion, adopting the view, which from that time became characteristic of Stoicism, that, as the sole aim of philosophy is to dis cover man s duty, ethics is the only science that is of real importance in itself, while physics is to be regarded merely as an aid to its study. He improved on the crude theory of perception which had been held by his predecessors, who compared the action of the object on the mind to that of the seal on the wax, arguing that this would do away with the possibility of the simultaneous perception of more than one object, and denying that the mental modification re sembles the object. He also finally determined the Stoical theory of the criterion of truth, which, according to him, is irresistible conviction. Much attention was paid by Chrysippus to formal logic. He held that the hypothetical syllogism is the original type of syllogistic inference, and he devoted the most elaborate study to its various forms. He drew up a scheme of the categories, making the highest Substance (TO vn-oKeiyu.evov) ; the next, Form, or essential attribute ; the third, Variety, or that non-essential attribute which is at the same time independent of all but the object itself; the fourth, Variety of Relation, or that non-essential attribute which depends on the relation of the object to some other object. Chrysippus also gave some attention to linguistic, and especially to grammatical investigations.
The explanation of the universe adopted by Chrysippus is that of the rest of his school. The real is the corporeal; man and the world are all that exists. In each there is that which is inert, and also the informing soul or vivifying fire. The soul of the universe is God, or Destiny. Each human soul is part of the universal soul, in which, according to the view originated by Chrysippus, the souls of all, except the wise, are again swallowed up at death. The universe is .perfect. So-called physical evil is none. Moral evil is the necessary complement of good, and is turned by Providence into good. All is the result of perfect law. Yet Chrysippus employed all his subtilty to establish the freedom of the will. A nother inconsistency was his reliance on divination, which he strove to explain on a theory of natural causation. The stories of the gods Chrysippus regarded as symbolical myths; and of many of them he attempted ingenious explanations.
In morals Chrysippus somewhat modified the extreme theory of the earlier Stoics. He admitted between the good and the bad a third class of things the indifferent, and even avowed that it is foolish not to desire health, and riches, and honour. In practice a man of unsullied purity, he felt bound to conclude, from the theory that the lower animals live according to nature, that incest and many other crimes, and acts so repulsive as- the devouring of the bodies of the dead, are natural, and therefore not to be blamed.
See Diogenes Laertius; Plutarch, De Stoicorum Repugnantiis; I etersen, Philosophic^ Chrysippece Fundamenta (Altona, 1827) ; Baguet, Commentatio de Ckrysippi vita, doctrina, et reliquiis (Louvain, 1822); Hagedorn, Moraha Chrysippea (1685); Pdchter, De Chrysippo Stoico fastuoso (Leinsic, 1738); Zeller, Stoics, Epicu reans, and Scefitics.
CHRYSOLORAS, Manuel (c. 1355-1415), a learned Greek who was instrumental in spreading Greek literature in the West, was born at Constantinople, about 1355, of a distinguished family, which had removed with Constantino to Byzantium. While still very young, he was sent by the emperor John Falaeologus to implore the aid of the Christian princes against the Turks. After several years he returned to Constantinople ; but at the invitation of the magistrates of Florence, about the year 1395, he became pro fessor of the Greek language in that city, where he taught three years. Having visited Milan and Pavia, and resided for several years at Venice, he went to Rome upon the invitation of Aretmo, who had been his disciple, and was then secretary to Gregory XII. In 1408 he was sent to Paris on an important mission from Manuel Palseologus, the Greek emperor. In 1413 he was appointed by Pope Martin V. on an embassy to the Emperor Sigismund, of which the object was to fix a place for the assembling of a general council. It was decided that the meeting should take place at Constance ; and Chrysoloras was on his way thither, having been chosen to represent the Greek church, when he died suddenly on the. 15th of .April 1415. Only two of his works have been printed, viz., his Erotemata, which was for some time the only grammar in use in the West, and Epistolce III. de comparatione veteris et novas Romce ; but many others exist in MS.
CHRYSOSTOM, St John (Xpwo <rny>s, golden-mouth ed), the most famous of the Greek fathers, was born of a noble family at Antioch, the capital of Syria, most probably about 347. At the school of Libanius the sophist he gave eurly indications of his mental powers, and would have been the successor of his heathen master, had he not been, to use the expression of his teacher, stolen away to a life of piety (like Augustine, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Theodoret), by ths influence of his pious mother Anthusa. Imme diately aftsr his baptism by Meletius, the bishop of Antioch, he gave up all his forensic prospects, and buried himself in an adjacent desert, where for six years he spent a life of ascetic self-denial and study. His infirmities, however, compelled him to return to the world ; and the authority of Meletius gained his services to the church. On his arrival he was ordained deacon in his thirty-fifth year (381), and afterwards presbyter at Antioch. On the death of Nectarius he was appointed archbishop of Con stantinople by Eutropius, the favourite minister of the Emperor Arcadius. He had, ten years before this, only escaped promotion to the episcopate by a very questionable stratagem, which, however, he defends in his instructive and eloquent treatise De Sacerdotio. As a presbyter, he won high reputation by his preaching at Antioch, more especially by his homilies on The Statues, a course of sermons delivered when the citizens were justly alarmed at the prospect of severe measures being taken against them by the Emperor Theodosius, whose statues had been demolished in a riot.
