racism of this kind, and other aspects of their life situation including their overall and racism-related resilience.
133 Professor Paradies was asked whether the impact experienced by the person would likely be exacerbated when the publisher of the phrase "go back to where you came from" is a colleague, a person with a significant public profile or an elected public official. Professor Paradies cited a study which found that interpersonal discrimination (ie negative behaviours that occur in everyday workplace social interactions) was at least equally harmful, and in many cases more harmful, than formal discrimination (ie decisions such as hiring, promotion or compensation).
134 Professor Paradies explained that racism is a function of power plus prejudice–people with significant public profiles have considerable power through the importance attached to fame in modern societies. Similarly, elected public officials also occupy positions of considerable power in representative democracies. Racism from those in positions of power is likely to have a heightened impact due to the increased threat (perceived or real) of abuse, harm, oppression, marginalisation, restriction, exclusion, ostracisation, disadvantage, deprivation, etc, both directly from the powerful perpetrator themselves and, more importantly, from the authorising effect of such racism through its influence on the general public. Among the general public there will be those who feel empowered to emulate, model and imitate such racism.
135 In cross-examination, Professor Paradies accepted that it is possible for there to be racism to or against white people, or on the basis of being of British descent (T96:35). He did not accept that criticising British colonialism could amount to racism against people of British descent (T97:13) and explained that there is a difference between criticising or critiquing societal institutions or societal processes, particularly those also engaged in by other nations, and making a critique of the people within the society (T120:5-14). In re-examination he explained that power within society is a significant moderator in relation to racism and its effects. Studies have shown that where there is discrimination directed against people on account of being white, the negative effects of such discrimination are significantly less than the effects of discrimination felt by other ethnic groups. Essentially, racism experienced by people who are white has a weaker or "qualitatively different" association with negative health outcomes than for people who are not white (T119:16-24).
136 Professor Paradies explained that, perhaps paradoxically, what is referred to as "white fragility" has been observed. There are cases where white people who experience discrimination can be
