measurement necessary to the completion of the system by taking advantage of Faraday's law, that the quantity of metal decomposed in an electrolytic cell is proportional to the whole quantity of electricity that passes. The best metal for the purpose is silver, deposited from a solution of the nitrate or of the chlorate. The results recently obtained by Professor Kohlrausch and by myself are in very good agreement, and the conclusion that one ampere flowing for one hour decomposes 4·025 grains of silver, can hardly be in error by more than a thousandth part. This number being known, the silver voltameter gives a ready and very accurate method of measuring currents of intensity, varying from 110 ampère to four or five ampères.
The beautiful and mysterious phenomena attending the discharge of electricity in nearly vacuous spaces have been investigated, and in some degree explained, by De La Rue, Crookes, Schuster, Moulton, and the lamented Spottiswoode, as well as by various able foreign experimenters. In a recent research Crookes has sought the origin of a bright citron-colored band in the phosphorescent spectrum of certain earths, and, after encountering difficulties and anomalies of a most bewildering kind, has succeeded in proving that it is due to yttrium, an element much more widely distributed than had been supposed. A conclusion like this is stated in a few words, but those only who have undergone similar experience are likely to appreciate the skill and perseverance of which it is the final reward.
A remarkable observation by Hall, of Baltimore, from which it appeared that the flow of electricity in a conducting sheet was disturbed by magnetic force, has been the subject of much discussion. Mr. Shelford Bidwell has brought forward experiments tending to prove that the effect is of a secondary character, due, in the first instance, to the mechanical force operating upon the conductor of an electric current when situated in a powerful magnetic field. Mr. Bidwell's view agrees in the main with Mr. Hall's division of the metals into two groups according to the direction of the effect.
Without doubt the most important achievement of the older generation of scientific men has been the establishment and application of the great laws of thermo-dynamics, or, as it is often called, the mechanical theory of heat. The first law, which asserts that heat and mechanical work can be transformed one into the other at a certain fixed rate, is now well understood by every student of physics, and the number expressing the mechanical equivalent of heat resulting from the experiments of Joule has been confirmed by the researches of others, and especially of Rowland. But the second law, which practically is even more important than the first, is only now beginning to receive the full appreciation due to it. One reason of this may be found in a not unnatural confusion of ideas. Words do not always lend themselves readily to the demands that are made upon
