de sacs), or when of small areal extent, as the result of fillings of holes in the sea bottom. In all such places there is defective circulation and lack of ox}-gen resulting in foul asphixiating bottoms.
These are the "halistas" of Walther and the "dead grounds" of Johnstone. To-day such are the Black Sea and the Bay of Kiel, where sulphur bacteria abound in greatest profusion. These decompose the dead organisms that rain from the photic region into such suffocating areas, or the carcasses which are drawn there by the slow undertow from the higher ground. These bacteria in the transforming process deposit in their cells sulphur that ultimately combines with the iron that is present and replaces the calcareous skeletons of invertebrates by iron pyrite or marcasite. In this way are formed the wonderfully interesting pseudomorphs of Triarthrus becki, the Utica trilobite preserving the entire ventral limbs, and of the other well preserved but small invertebrates from the Coal Measures black shale of Danville, Illinois.
Brackish-water and especially deep-sea shelled animals tend to have thin shells, while increase of salinity tends towards the thickening and roughening of the calcareous shells. It is a well known fact that in the dolomite-depositing continental seas like that of the Guelph (Siluric). all of the molluscs have ponderous thick shells. These have been interpreted as reef-living species but actual reefs in the Guelph are unknown. The molluscs are often common but corals are represented by but a few species. Similar conditions are known to occur in other dolomite faunas. Further, the Guelph was of a time of decided progressive emergence and restrictional seas under an arid climate, and therefore the waters must have been abnormally salty.
Rivers constantly discharge into the sea great quantities of plant material, but as a rule little of it other than the wood is swept far out to sea. At present the rivers of northern Siberia float into the sea vast numbers of logs that drift with the currents to Spitzbergen, East and West Greenland and Arctic America. This wide dispersal of wood by the sea is met with only in the cold regions, whereas in tropical waters the wood is rapidly decomposed. Single leaves are rarely transported far from their place of origin, and when of good preservation in geologic deposits, give decisive evidence of the nearness of the shore. On the other hand, tough palm leaves have been seen in the sea 70 miles from land and rafts of leaves are often met with 200 or more miles beyond the mouths of the Kongo and the Amazon. Proximity to shore is also indicated by the presence in marine faunas of land molluscs, insects and bones of land vertebrates.
With tillites now known in the Lower Huronian of Canada, in the Lower Cambric of northern Norway, China, South Africa and Australia, and in the Permic of India, South Africa, Australia and Brazil, we observe the recurrence of glacial climates. The Siluric and Devonic
