coral reefs occurring in Arctic regions, the sponge, coral and bryozoa reefs in the Jurassic of northern Europe, the rudistid and other cemented pelecypods in reefs of wide distribution in the Cretaceous, and the almost world-wide distribution of the Nummulitidæ (north of Siberia) in the late Eocene and Oligocene point as clearly to warm waters and mild polar climates. Further the widely distributed Carbonic foraminifers of the family Fusulinidæ that swarmed in temperate and tropical regions are unknown to Arctic and Antarctic regions. In other words, long before we have a fossil record the earth had climatic zones, and for long periods the climate was mild to warm, punctuated by shorter intervals of cold to mild climates.
The volume of sea water to-day is very great, but we must ask ourselves: Has this quantity always been such or was it even greater, as some geologists still hold? We no longer agree with Laplace and Dana that the earth passed through an astral stage, but rather agree with Chamberlin that it always has had a more or less cold exterior. Through volcanic activity much juvenile water from the interior of the earth was extruded in geologic time and was added to the vadose waters of the surface. Suess states that "the body of the earth has given forth its oceans and is in the middle phase of its gas liberations." Accordingly, the Paleozoic oceans must have been quantitatively smaller than those of the present, and the gradual increase in the volume of vadose waters has been accommodated by the periodic increase of oceanic depth.
We also agree with Walther that the oceans of Paleozoic and earlier time did not have the great abyssal depths they now have. The accentuated deepening of the permanent oceanic basins did not begin until the Triassic, for in none of the great depths of the present oceans are found traces of Paleozoic organisms, and all here are of Mesozoic or Tertiary origin. In the shallow regions, however, are still found a few Paleozoic testaceous-bearing genera of brachiopods, tubicular annelids, pelecypods, gastropods, Nautilus, and Limulus. The deepening of the Pacific, the Indian, and especially the Atlantic oceans has been at the expense of the lands or horsts, for the ancient continents, Gondwana and Laurentia, have each towards the close of the Mesozoic been broken into several masses. We may therefore speak of permanent oceans, and transgressed, fractured, and partially down faulted, continents or horsts.
These are some of the factors that control the making of some of the modern paleogeographic maps.
