SWITZERLAND 527 itution from Switzerland, and the number of convents of other religious orders has been somewhat reduced during the present century ; in 1874 it amounted to 88. The constitution of 1874 forbids the founding of new convents. The Protestants belong mostly to the Reformed church. Since 1857 deputies of the Reformed cantonal churches meet annually in a Helvetic conference. Faculties of Protestant theology are connected with the universities of Bern, Zurich, and Basel, and there are also several theological schools in French Switzerland ; in Bern a faculty of Old Catholic theology was established in 1874. Basel is the seat of the greatest missionary and Bible society of con- tinental Europe, while the religious societies of French Switzerland have their centre in Geneva. Free churches (Presbyterian or In- dependent) have been formed during the pres- ent century by secession from the state church- es, and are especially numerous in the can- tons of Geneva, Neufchatel, and Vaud, in each of which they have a theological school. The Methodists and Baptists have congregations in several cantons, and the former also a book concern at Zurich. In 1870 the number of Jews amounted to 6,996. Switzerland has three full universities, at Basel, Bern, and Zu- rich. The former was founded in 1460, the two latter since 1832. All are organized after the model of the German universities, gov- erned by a rector and a senate, and divided into faculties, of which Basel has four, Zurich five, and Bern six. There are also four acade- mies, at Geneva, Lausanne, and .Neufchatel, each with three faculties, and Fribourg with two faculties; three lyceums, at Lugano, Ein- siedeln (Schwytz), and Sion; and nine theo- logical schools. The academy at Geneva (called also university), founded in 1368, the scene of Calvin's and Beza's teaching, has hitherto lacked a medical faculty. This will soon be added, completing the university. All the academies except that of Fribourg are Prot- estant, all the lyceums Catholic. The number of gymnasia and cantonal schools is 47. The federal constitution of 1848 provided for the establishment of a federal university (the three above mentioned being cantonal institutions) ; but the conflicting claims of several cantons as to its location, and of the Reformed and Ro- man Catholic churches as to its organization, have prevented the execution of the plan. A federal polytechnic school was founded in 1854 at Zurich, and has attained a high degree of prosperity and celebrity. In 1874 it had 73 professors and 676 students, and 275 pupils who study one or more branches at their op- tion. The number of public schools amounts to about 7,000, educating upward of 400,000 pupils. There is a federal military academy at Thun (Bern). The expenses of public in- struction are partly paid by the communities, partly by special school funds, and partly by appropriations of the cantonal governments ; and the constitution requires that all children 774 VOL. xv. 34 must attend school from their 7th to their 14th year. Many private educational institu- tions have gained a world-wide celebrity since the days of Pestalozzi and Fellenberg, who conducted establishments of this kind at Yver- dun (Vaud) and Hofwyl (Bern). Considerable attention is given to musical instruction, and in 1874 the federal singing societies numbered 8,552 members. The Alpine valleys are re- markable for their peculiar local melodies. (See RANZ DBS VACHES.) The number of pe- riodicals published in Switzerland in 1872 was 412, of which 266 were in German, 118 in French, 16 in Italian, 5 in Romansh, 1 in English, and 6 in German and French. The aggregate number of copies issued was 90,800,- 000. The first federal constitution of Switz- erland, which superseded the federal contract of Aug. 7, 1815, and changed the federal union of states into a federal republic, was promul- gated Sept. 12, 1848. A revised constitution was submitted to the people on April 19, 1874, and, having received the constitutional ma- jority, came into force on May 29. It pro- vides that all the rights of sovereignty which are not expressly transferred to the confed- eracy are exercised by the 25 cantons and half cantons. Among the prerogatives of tHe federal government are the rights of declar- ing war, of concluding peace or treaties, and of sending diplomatic representatives. The formation of separate alliances between the cantons, without special permission, is pro- hibited. The constitution of every canton is guaranteed, if it is republican in form, if it has been adopted by the people, and if it can be revised on the demand of a majority of the citizens. All Swiss are equal before the law, and the former relation of subjects as well as all privileges of place or birth are abolished. There shall be complete and absolute liberty of conscience and of creed. No one can incur any penalties whatsoever on account of his re- ligious opinions. The father or guardian has the right to dispose of the religious education of the children up to the age of 16 years. No one is bound to contribute to the expenses of a church to which he does not belong. The free exercise of worship is guaranteed. Civil marriage is compulsory, and a subsequent re- ligious ceremony is optional. The cantons have the right to maintain peace and order between different religious communities, and to prevent encroachments of ecclesiastical au- thorities upon the rights of citizens. No new bishoprics can be created without the appro- bation of the federal government. Liberty of the press, of petition, and of association is guaranteed; but the Jesuits and all religious orders and associations which are affiliated to them are prohibited; all functions, clerical and scholastic, are forbidden to Jesuits, and this interdiction can be extended to any other religious order whose action may be deemed dangerous to the state. The confederacy has the right of sending away dangerous foreign-
