beyond the Seinilos. the Aryans may be, as
Brinton suggested (1895), the real fathers of
all this culture. The derivation of Chine.se civil-
ization direct from the Babylonian is an un-
))rovcd theory strongly advocated in some quar-
ters. The ramifications of Babylonian culture
went all over Western Asia, and even reached
out into ancient Europe and Africa. It was in-
digenous, and not borrowed from the Egyptian.
The writing used in Baliylonia, from the earli- est period down through the times of the Greek suprcniac-, was a derivative of a pictorial form, which in the course of time became largely linear. Owing to the peculiar shape taken on by the lines, so that they resembled wedges rather than lines, — a tendency which develops at a com- paratively late period and is due largely to the influence on the script of clay used as the com- mon writing material. — the writing is commonly known as cuneiform — i.e. wedge-shaped. ( See Cuneiform In.scriptio.ns. ) Wliile clay was the ordinary nuiterial for writing (for recording commercial transactions, for the religious litera- ture, for correspondence, and largely for official annals), the earliest inscriptions (usually of a votive or commemorative character) are on stone: and in later times we find also metals (gold, silver, bronze, etc.) employed as well as stone. The Babylonian literature, known to us largely through late copies made by Assyrian kings, notably Assurbanipal (see ..ssyria), is e.xceedingly extensive and dates back to at least B.C. 2050. It consists largely of hymns, prayers, omens, incantations, but contains also epics, myths, and legends, and for later periods histor- ical annals. Besides, while not properly litera- ture, we have large collections in European and .merican museums of commercial and legal tab- lets which formed part of the archives of the temples of ancient Babylonia. Throiigh these tablets, ranging from c.3000 B.C. to the second century B.C., we obtain a remarkable insight into the private and public life, social conditions, legal procedures, and political organization pre- vailing in Babylonia, while the votive commem- oratory inscriptions and annals enable us to trace the political history of the country, though for many centuries the material is yet quite in- sufficient.
All this material has been brought to light through the excavations conducted during the past fifty years in the mounds that cover the site of the ancient cities of Babylonia. While exca- vations in Assyria were begun as early as 1842 (see As.syria), the first Babylonian mound was not opened till 1854, in which year Sir Henry Rawlinson began excavating at Birs Nimrud (the ancient Borsippa, q.v.). In 1851-54, a French expediti(m under the direction of Fresnel and Oppert conducted excavations in the south, while Rawlinson continued work at Nippur. Warka, and Muglvir, though not very thoroughly. During 1878-85 Hornuizd Rassam conducted systematic excavations at various places, notably at Abu Habba (the ancient Sippar) for the benefit of the British Museum, and in 1881 excavations were begun on a large scale by Ernest de Sarzec at Tel-lo for the French Qovernment. which are still being continued. They threw mvich light on the earlier period of Babylonian history; but through the American excavations, conducted by the Ihiiversity of Pennsylvania from 1887 to date, documents were found which carry us back to a still earlier period. I'.i'^ides inscriptions, sculptures, ornaments, utensils, seal cylinders, and various other objects, have been found of great importance for Babylonian archaeology, but much still remains to be done. In 18!)!), the German Government began a series of excava- tions on the site of the city of Babylon itself, which have already yielded rich results, and another American expedition was organized in HJOUOl which proposes * ) undertake systematic excavations at Mugheir ( the ancient Ur of the Chaldees ) . There remain, however, many im- portant sites w'hich have not yet been touched, and until these shall have been examined and made to yield up the treasures which they hold, the reconstruction of Babylonian history, par- ticularly of the earlier periods, will necessarily be imperfect, and to a certain extent hypo- thetical.
The earliest period to which the history of th^ country can lie traced back maj' now be fixed with some degree of certainty at B.C. 4500. At that time, and down to c.2;i00 B.C., Babylonia was divided up among a varying number of .States more or less independent, though at times one exercised a measure of supremacy over the others. Among the cities that enjoy a prom- inence at this early period are Xippur, Lagash, Ur, Eridu, Erech, and Larsa in the south, and Sippar, Agade, Kish, and Babylon in the north. The oldest ruler now known to us is En-Shag- Kushanna, who calls himself 'lord of Kengi,' by which at that time Southern Babylonia was in- dicated : but while thus exercising a supremacy over a considerable district, this ruler is far from governing all of Babylonia. There is at this same period an important centre. Kish in North- ern Babj'lonia, which forms a rival to the south- ern kingdom. An inscription of En-Shag-Kush- anna records the latter's victory over Kish. The rivalry, however, continued, for somewhat later we find a king of Kish exercising authority over Lagash. We encounter another interesting per- sonage in this early period in Lugalzaggisi^ whose date may be fixed approximately at B.C. 4000. The capital of this ruler's kingdom is Erech (the modern Warka) ; but, proudly call- ing himself "king of the world,' he claims to rule from the Lower Sea (the Persian Gulf) to the Upper Sea (Lal<e of Van). How far this boast is justified it is difficult to say; but if Lugal- zaggisi's rule really included so large a territoi-y. it was not of long duration ; for we find, at a period contemporaneous, a continuous series of rulers at Lagash who call themselves kings, and who reach back almost to the time of En-Shag- Kushanna. All through this early period Nippur occupies a rather unique position. As one of the religious centres of the country, it is to the god of Nippur that all rulers pay homage, and it is to him that they ascril)e their victories. To control Nippur, therefore, appears to have been an ambition of the rulers — if not, indeed, a neces- sary condition to their being acknowledged as supreme. The position of the place on the dividing line between northern and southern Babylonia had probably nnich to do with the prominence that it achieved.
The rulers of Lagash maintained a preeminent position until the rise of a kingdom in the north, whose centre was at Agade, about B.C., 3800. The period appears to have been on the whole one of peace, during which strides were made in the arts
