and civilization in general. One of the chiefs, more especially Gudæa (c. 3000 B.C.), appears to have been a great builder, as the remains of his palace and temples at Tel-lo indicate. Dolo- rite was imported from Arabia for the production of statues of the king of enormous size, while gold and precious stones were likewise imported for the manufacture of objects of art; but these kings also showed prowess in war. We have a splendid stele set up in a temple at Lagash by Eannatum (c. 4200 B.C.) commemorating his vic- tory over his enemies. On one side Eannatum is pictured as standing in his chariot, leading his troops against the enemy. The battle-field is por- trayed in another section, on which vultures are depicted in the act of mangling the corpses of the King's opponents. It is about B.C. 3800 that Agade comes to the fore under the leadership of Sargon I., and from this time on, Lagash sinks to secondary importance. Its rulers become for a time vassals to Agade, though they subse- quently regain their independence. About 1000 years after Sargon, we find a dynasty with its centre at Ur, claiming control as kings of Sumer and Accad, over both northern and southern Babylonia. Of the two kings of this period known to us, Ur-gur and Dungi, both are distin- guished as great builders, restoring and enlarg- ing temples in the various religious centres of the land. The commerce of Babylonia at this period also assumed large dimensions, which may be taken as another indication that the rulers were devoted to internal improvements rather than conquest. The rivaliy, however, among the cities or States continued, and for a time we find Isin taking the place of Ur as the controlling centre. Ur recovers its former position c. 2400 B.C.; but about this time Babylon comes to the front, and within 100 years a mighty warrior, Hammurabbi, succeeds in gaining for his capital the rank once occupied by Erech, Lagash, and Ur; and, what is more, from this time on, while the control frequently changes hands, the power passing through no less than eight distinct dynasties, Babylon remains the centre until the overthrow of the Neo-Babylonian Kingdom by Cyrus, in B.C. 538. Hammurabbi, after making his position secure, takes up the legacy of the past and be- comes a patron of civilization. He perfects the canal system of the country, and lays the founda- tions for the future glory of the city of Babylon.
About the year B.C. 1782, Babylonia is con- quered by a people known as the Kassites, who advance from the mountain districts of Elam and Media. For no less than 500 years they suc- ceed in maintaining themselves as rulers, after which they are replaced by native rulers, who hail from Pashe. About B.C. 1050, another change takes place, and rulers from the 'Sea Land,' in the extreme south, seat themselves on the throne of Babylon. The names of these kings are Kassitic, so that it woild seem that a sec- tion of this people who had, perhaps, been driven to the south, succeeded in regaining control. It was a period evidently of great internal dis- turbance; for within fifty years no less than three changes in dynasties take place, and for a short time indeed Elam obtains control of Babylonia. A factor which was, no doubt, of importance in bringing about this state of unrest, was the con- stant interference in Babylonian affairs on the part of the Assyrian Kingdom, that had mean- while developed great military activity (see Assyria), and that finally succeeded in obtaining practical control of the south, while according to it a certain measure of independence. About the year 1026, native rulers once more sit on the throne of Babylonia, and from now on till the rise of the Neo-Babylonian Kingdom (B.C. 626), the only violent changes are those due to the alternating periods of friendship and hostility with Assyria. After the Eleventh Century, the time when Babylonia could take the initiative of conquest had definitely passed away, and her development from now on lay wholly in the domain of commerce, the arts and sciences. Her chief troubles came from Assyria, and whenever changes took place in the north, the south was certain to feel the effects. From time to time ambitious leaders arose, who, by a combination with the enemies of Assyria, tried to throw off the Assyrian yoke; but all such efforts, after a shorter or longer period, failed, and generally, after successfully quelling an uprising, the Assyrian monarchs themselves took control of Babylonian affairs until things had quieted down sufficiently to warrant the appointing of a gov- ernor over them. It was from Chaldæa that at last a leader came who — as, with the death of Assurbanipal, Assyria rapidly declined — seized the opportunity to combine with the rugged Scythian hordes, coming from the north, for the purpose of striking a fatal blow at Assyria. The plan succeeded, and as Nineveh fell, Babylon suc- ceeded for a short time in replacing her as mis- tress of the ancient world. Nabopolassar, the founder of the Neo-Babylonian Monarchy, handed over the succession to his son Nebuchadnezzar about B.C. 604, who felt himself strong enough to take up the rôle of Assyria as a world con- queror. He checked the advance of Necho II. of Egypt (who had formed a plan to secure control of Syria and Palestine), conquered Jeru- salem and Tyre, and boldly advanced against Egypt, which he succeeded in putting under his control for a short time.
The strength of the new monarchy seems to have expended itself in Nebuchadnezzar's reign. After 43 years of incessant warfare, the throne passed in 561 into the hands of his son, Evil-Merodach, who after two years was assassinated in the course of a revolt led by his own brother-in-law, Neriglissar. In 555, Labashi-Marduk, who succeeded his father, was murdered by his nobles, after reigning for nine months, and Nabonidus mounted the throne. He devoted himself to the rebuilding of temples in various centres, but aroused the opposition of the priests of Babylon by attempting to introduce changes in religious rites. But even if he had been successful in reuniting the divided interests of the country, Babylonia would not have been strong enough to resist the attack of the new force that now made its appearance. In the year B.C. 538 Babylon yielded without a struggle to Cyrus, who was hailed by the priests of Marduk as a deliverer, and who knew how to avail himself of the situation by restoring the old religious order, and by adopting a general policy of mildness, calculated to reconcile all parties. Persia retained control of Babylonia until the advent of Alexander the Great, by whose conquests Greek supremacy was established, which was subsequently exchanged for Parthian supremacy. Alexander made Babylon his capital, and it was there he died. After this the glory of Babylon
