IRELAND. 761 IRELAND. these injuries were made by leaving the linen trade undisturbed. The result of all these meas- ures was the gradual decline of Ireland. A large jjercentage of the best elements of the population emigrated — the Catholics to serve in the armies of Spain and France, the Protestants to carry their industries to America. The American Revolution awakened much sym- pathy in Ulster, especially among the Presby- terians, who, being disqualihcd from holding office, desired a general emancipation, including the Catliolics. In 1778 the Irish Parliament passed the Relief Act, removing some of the most oppressive disabilities. Meanwhile, the Irish Protestants, under pretext of defending the coun- try from the French, who had formed an alli- ance with the Americans, had formed associations of volunteers, 80.000 strong. Backed by this military force, they, under the lead of Grat- tan, demanded legislative independence for Ireland, and on motion of the younger Fo.x the British Parliament repealed both the Poy- nings law and the act of George I. mentioned above. But the Irish Parliament was composed entirely of the Protestants of the Established Church, who were unwilling to extend the suf- frage, and it was even more corrupt and in need of reform than the British Parliament. The prin- ciples of the French Revolution found their most powerful expression in Ireland in the Society of United Irishmen, which organized the rebellion of 1708. The peasantry rose in Wexford, and, al- though miserably armed, made a brave fight. At one time Dublin was in danger, but the in- surgents were defeated by the regular forces at Vinegar Hill. A French force of 1100 landed in Killala Bay, but too late to render effective as- sistance. A reign of terror ensued, of which even the English Governor disapproved. Pitt, the British Prime Jlinister, thought a legislative union of the two countries, together with Catholic emancipation, the only remedy for Catholic re- bellion and Protestant tyranny. By a lavish use of money and distribution of patronage, he ac- cordingly induced the Irish Parliament to pass the Act of Union. On January 1, 1801, the Union was formally proclaimed. The history of Ireland since the Union is the story of a continuous struggle for civic and re- ligious freedom, and for separation from Great Britain. Hardly had the Union been carried out when the universal dissatisfaction gave rise to the outbreak of July 2.3. 180.3, under Robert Emmet (q.v. ). It was easily suppressed, and for some time there were no further armed revolts. In- stead a conflict was carried on along Parliament- ary lines under the leadership of Uaniel O'Con- ne'll (q.v.). In 1823 he founded the Catholic Association, which demanded first of all Catholic emancipation. This was finally obtained, for in 1828 Catholics were permitted to hold office, and in 1820 fhey were allowed to sit in Parliament. The struggle now turned upon the tithes, which all. Catholics included, were comiielled to pay for the maintenance of the Anglican Church in Ire- land. Great cruelties were perpetrated on both sides during the so-called 'Tithe War.' which about 18.31 became coupled with ,a renewed em- phatic demand for the repeal of the Act of Union. O'Connell formed various societies to carry on the agitation, and there was consider- able lawlessness, which was fostered by the so- called Ribbon Society ^see Ribbonism). The reform of Parliament in 18.32 aided the Irish leaders, for it increased the number of Irish members from 100 to 105, and, more important still, it gave the middle class more power, in place of the pro-English aristocracy. In 1838 a bill was passed converting the tithes into rent- cliarge, to be paid by the landlords, and agitation in connection with the Church ceased to be acute for a time. OX'onnell had for a long period been supported by the more extreme of the Irish Xa- tionalists, but in 1843 it became evident that he would never make an appeal to arms. The con- sequence was the formation of the Young Ireland Party, whose leaders were all young men. the most notable being William Smith O'Brien, John Blake Dillon, Thomas Francis ileagher, and .John ilitchcl. The last-named in turn seceded from the Young Ireland Party, and advocated an Irish republic. For a while Peel, the English Prime iliiiister, tried concessions, but in vain, the more so as from 184.5 to 1847 rent-racked Ireland suf- fered from a terrible famine, due to the failure of the potato crop. Vast numbers emigrated, espe- cially to America, whither they carried with them the hatred toward England, and continued to give effective support to the Irish cause. Many also died, and it is said that in all one and a half million of people had disappeared by 1848. In the latter year the Young Ireland Party sought to bring about a revolt, but the whole attempt proved a miserable failure; the leaders were cap- tured and transported. The work of the Young Ireland Party was in time taken up by the Fenian Society (q.v.), which accomplished nothing, except arousing English feeling by various outrages, and thus giv- ing rise to several coercive measures. Far- reaching reforms, however, came about through the eff'orts of Gladstone. On July 26. ISGO, a measure was passed by Parliament, which finally disestablished the Irish Church, the act taking eff'ect on January 1, 1871. (See Ireland, Chirch OF.) Many reforms in the land laws were also carried out, which are described in detail under Irish L.xd Law.s : while the agrarian agitation is treated iinder Land Leacve. Ireland, however, was not content with ecclesiastical and agrarian reforms, and Home Rule (q.v.) became the all- absorbing question, the cause finding a champion of great ability in Charles Stewart Parnell (q.v.). In 1880 the agrarian movement in Ireland devel- oped into a system of organized terrorism. As a result of this lawlessness a bill became law on March 2. 1881, known as the Coercion Act, which gave the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland power, by warrant, to arrest any person, on mere sus- picion, for treason, intiniidati<m. and the like. Under this law Parnell and other Irish leaders were arrested, but, as usual, the Irish retaliated with outrages, which culminated in the nmrder of the Chief Secretary for Ireland, Lord Frederick Cavendish, and the permanent Under-Secretary. Thomas H. Burke, in Pha-nix Park. Dublin, on Mav 6, 1882. Thereupon the Government passed an exceptionally stringent and severe Crimes Act, which, among other things, permitted the examination of witnesses without bringing any specific charges against individuals. By this means a body, known as the 'Invincibles' (q.v.), was discovered, under whose auspices most of the outrages had been perpetrated. But both the Liberals and Conser'atives in England ultimately recognized that existing con-
