POLITICAL PARTIES. 193 POLITICAL PARTIES. railroad and industrial euniliinations afTectin" botli the United States and Canada. Denmark. Parties in Denniarl< took on a new formation after the ee.ssion of Sclileswig- Holstein and Lauenburg, in 18()4. Under the Constitution of 1866 the Diet was composed of two chambers, the Folkelhiny, the popular repre- sentative branch, and the Landsthiny, consisting of twelve members, appointed by the King, and forty-four elected by voters possessing incomes of two thousand crowns. The Liberal-Nationalist Party, which had opposed the cession of the duchies, became a conservative landholding and official class party, controlling the Laiidsthing, while the masses, represented in the Folkething, stood in opposition and themselves divided into the Jloderate Left and the Democratic Left. An endless dispute arose over the budget between the Houses, the Democratic Left, controlling the Folkithhtfi. refusing to admit the veto of the La ml fill ill If. The Democrats lost their majority in 1801. but the conflict between the cliambers is repeated when important issues arise, althongh of late the King and the Conservatives have practically managed the government. Fr.xce. The French Revolution, by the im- pulse that it gave to the growth of democracy, introduced political parties in Continental Eu- rope. (For the revolutionary parties in France, see the articles Fevili-^xts; Giroxdi.sts; Jaco- ni.x.s. ) With the Restoration there appeared the two monarchist parties — the Constitutional Monarchists and the Ultra Royalists. (See CiiAMBRE IXTROWABLE.) There were also the Doctrinaires. Rejniblicans. and Bonapartists. ^'ith the accession of the House of Orleans in the person of Louis Philippe, French parties under- went a readjustment. The existing monarchy was opposed by Legitimists, who sought the return of the elder Bourbon line; Bonapartists. who would have restored the Napoleonic regime: and Repub- licans. The Orleanist monarchy was overtlirown. apparently by the Republicans (see February Revolution), but the Bonapartists became domi- nant after the coup d'etat of Decemher 2. 1851. (See N.poleox III.) From 18.52 to 1860 the Emperor exercised almost autocratic power, and politics were dormant so far as popular parties and parliamentary life were concerned. Later he lost the support of the Catholic clergy by his Italian policy, and was compelled to turn more to the Liberals. He thus reopened the active political life of France. Republicans. Orleanists. and Legitimists at once formed an Opposi- tion. Parliamentary action was renewed. A Liberal Imperialist party supported the Emperor, but opposed his Ministers. Upon this party Napoleon depended to maintain the Empire against the Rovalist and Republican coalition in 186(1-70. The French defeat in 1870-71 (see Franco-Oerman War) overthrew the Empire and presented the Republicans their opportunity. Wlien the Third Repidilic rose ujion the ruins of the Second Empire, the Republicans, although a minority party, found themselves in control of aflfairs through the lack of harmony among their opponents. Each of the three monarchical par- ties — Legitimists. Orleanists. and Bonapartists — recognizing its own inability to control the situa- tion, was willing to have the Republicans tempo- rarily in power, hoping that the next turn of the political wheel would bring in its own par- ticular type of monarchy. In the first National Assembly the Royali.^ts and Bonapartists made up the reactionary Right and. united, were in a majority, while the Republicans themselves were made up of numerous and often discordant groups. There were the Extreme Left, which had few members, but a large following outside the As.senibly; the Left, by far the largest group: and the conservative Left Centre, which grad ually gained supporters among the moderate or constitutional monarchists of the Right Centre. Thiers ((|.v.). the lirst President, was a consti- tutional monarchist who regarded the Republic as a political necessity. The Ministry was a con.servatie one made up from the Left Centre. The acceptance of this moderate leadership wa.s an encouraging sign, but all unity disappeared as soon as the German occupation ended. The radical strength in the Chamber increased, and in response to its demands the .Ministry was modified. The united Right was able to pass a vote censuring the change in the Ministry, and Thiers resigned, whereupon Marshal MacJIahon (q.v. ) was elected President as the candidate of the Right (18731. He at first appointed a coali- tion Cabinet from the three monarchical parties. The Right was united only in opposition to the Republicans, and the groujis of the Left likewise united solely for the purpo.se of opi)osing the Giovernment. MacMahon's term of oHice was made seven years ( the so-called septennale) . For a year and a half the difterent aims of the fac- tions on both sides of the Assembly prevented action on the Constitutional Laws. In .June. 187.5. fearing the growth of the Imperialist strength, some of the constitutional monarchists united with the Left to secure the passage of the laws. The Assembly created by the new Constitution consisted of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. The Constitutional Laws recognized the sover- eignty of the people, represented in the Chamber of Deputies, and established the right of public meeting, the liberty of the press, and universal suffrage. The Republicans, with a large majority in the Chamber, forced the fighting. They were divided into the Left Centre. Republican Union (the largest group, led by Gambetta ) . and the Radical Left. The ^Monarchists, adopting a con- servative attitude, were grouped as Right Centre, Right, and Popular Appeal. ilacMahon in 1870 made up a Ministry from the Left Centre, at first under Dufaure (q.v. I. later under .lules Simon (q.v,). In 1877, after a year of struggle against radical measures, acting under the advice of his conservative friends. MacMahon dismis.sed the Simon Jlinistry, adjourned the Chamber, and then, with the consent of the Senate, dissolved it. The Conservatives then sought to intrench them- selves in the Government through the power given to the President and Senate by the Constitutional Laws, but the President had by his course opened a bitter struggle which destroyed any possibility of harmony. The Republicans won the elections, refused to recognize a Conservative Ministry, and finally forced the President to form a ^Ministry from the Left Centre. In 1878 the Republicans olitained a majority in the Senate, and Mac- Mahon. unwilling longer to maintain the conflict, resigned in 1870. and was succeeded by Grfy. Their supremacy once established, the Repub- licans renewed their factional struggles. The Left Centre lost its influence. Gambetta's Republican Union was opi)Osed by a growing
