POLITICAL PARTIES. 194 POLITICAL PARTIES. Badical wing, which rcpionohed (iambetta with opportunism. A scries of Ministries tending toward radicalism followed. A period of per- sonal politics was entered upon, with Min- istries couiliined lor expcdiciicv rather than as ex- ponents of politi<al principles, fourteen difTerent Ministries holdin-; oliice between 1878 and 1888. The two principal wings of the Republicans came to tjc known as Opportunists and Kadicals. The Legitimists united with the Orleanists in 1883, ami two years later an increased number of monarchists were returned to the Chamber. An attempt was made in the face of this growing Conservative strength to unite the Opportunists and Radicals (policy of Republican concentra- tion). The pretenders to tlie throne were ban- ished in 188G at the instance of the Concentration Ministrj'. In 1887 the Rouvicr Ministry adopted the so-called policy of conciliation, which aimed at a coalition of Conservatives and Ojiportunists against the Radicals. In the same year (ieneral Boulanger (q.v. ) came into proniinciicc and sought to profit by the prevailing political con- fusion. His shibboleth, "revision of the Constitu- tional Laws,' won support from all of the dis- satisfied factions. His party was known as the Revisionist or National Party. The support of lioulanger by the Catholic Conservatives alien- ated his Radical followers, who joined the Op- ])ortunists to defeat him. In 188!) the complete overthrow of tliis political adventurer was ac- complished. This victory was important evi- dence of the growing strength of the Republic. A marked change in |>arties now began. The Republicans who had united to defeat Boulanger continued to act together as Moderates or Gov- ernment Republicans. The monarchist parties were all weakened and discredited by their participation in the Boulanger episode. Radi- calism came to be more and more represented by the Socialists. This body, hitherto of slight im])ortance. had its origin in the breakup of the lepul)licans during the struggle against the .July Monarchy, those who continued to u|)liold Repub- lican principles seeking a purely political revolu- tion, while a party of workingmen and theorists sought to make the Republic a means of radical social reform. In the succeeding years the ideas of the Socialists frequently found expression in the demands of the Radicals. In 1800 there were four Socialist groups, with views more or less extreme, and increasing political activity. A change that greatly strengthened the Moderates was the gradual cessation of clerical opposition to the Re[niblic. ilany Catholics who had for- merly acted with the reactionary parties now came to the support of the (iovernment under the name of Jlallies, or the Constitutional Right. -V protective tarilT with maxinmm and minimum rates was enacted in 18!I2: otherwise there was very little positive legislation during this re- alignment of [jarties, and the Freycinet Ministry (1890-92) enjoyed a hitherto almost tmprece- dented term of office. In 1892 there was a startling exposure of the use of enormous cor- ruption funds in promoting the Panama Canal scheme. Over one hundred .Senators. Deputies, and officials were implicated, inchuling many political leaders, but even in the face of this the Moderates gained largely in the elections of 189.'!. The policy of concentration was discarded, and the Moderates took full responsibility, with Casimir-Pfrier (q.v.) at the head of the Min- istrj'. The murder of President Carnot in 1894 was followed by the election of CasimirPC-rier as his successor and drastic measures against anarchists. The new President and his (iovern- ment were violently assailed by the Socialists and Radicals for their policy, the Uupuy -Ministry went down in 1895 before the Oppo- sition attacks, and then CasimirPerier re- signed the Presidency. Felix Faure (q.v.) was elected President by a union of the .Moderates and the Right, but the Socialists, who had sup- ported Brisson. had shown a significant increase of strength. The first Moderate Cal)inet (Kibot) gave way in a few months to one much more Radical (Bourgeois), but the latter, after a struggle with the Senate, was succeeded in 1896 by another Moderate Ministry (Meline). The Dreyfus case (see Drkvft.s) complicated French politics for three yi'ars, and even endangered the Republic. The Meline Ministry, which depended on the support of the Right, came to an end in 1898. A Radical .Ministry under Brisson wrestled unsuccessfully for a few months with the Dreyfus case. A new coalition Cabinet was then or- ganized by Dupuy. On the death of President Faure. in February, 1899, Eniile Loubet (q.v.) was elected to the Presidency, and in .lune a new Jlinistry was made up by M. Waldeck- Rousseau. A Radical Socialist. M. Millcrand, was include<l in this Cabinet. The Governmeat took positive measures to put down the revived Xationalist agitation, imprisoning several of the old Boulangists. who bad resumed their activity. .
amnesty bill in 1900 purged all who were
connected with the Dreyfus case. While the (iovernment thus tried to still the strife which had injured France, it did not hesitate to bring on a conllict with the Catholic Church. This was done by the introduction of the so-called Associa- tions Bill, regulating the privileges and rights of property of certain associations. This measure, while general in its terms, was ostensibly intend- ed to bring within control of the connnon law the .Jesuits and monastic communities, which had no authorization from the State, held large amounts of property, conducted numerous schools, and were directed to a great extent from outside of France. Notwithstanding Papal warnings and severe criticism at home, the measure was car- ried by a good majority in March. 1902. and in April the long-lived Waldeek-Rousseau Adminis- tration went to the people on its record. The result was the election of :i82 Ministerialists and but I9f! of all the opposition factions, .fter this vindication of his policy, the Premier retired and was succeeded by M. Combes, who cont inued his predecessor's policy and imsparingly enforced the Associations Law. When the first excite- ment had passed, it became evident that the (iovernment had a powerful legislative an<l pop- ular backing. A supplementary measure in March. 190.3. practically refused the conduct of schools to the religious Orders, on the ground that their tendency was unrepublican. This action pointed to a growing separation of Church and State in France, and the development of parties indicated the consolidation of the Re- public and a more radical political condition. (TER,M.Ny. The national parties in the (ierman Empire have their souice and their local counter- parts in the separate German States. Bismarck carried his earlier measures by means of the support of a patriotic nationalist party, the
