PSYCHOLOGY. 511 PSYCHOLOGY. terms sensations; and it is fond of appealing to the naive consciousness for confirmation of its analysis. The associationist position has been largeh- transcended, though the episteniologieal reference still remains prominent, iu the later English and American works of J. ard, W. James, and G. F. Stout. In spite of all defi- ciencies, the psychologies of the associationist school retain a high value on the level of de- scriptive analysis. The third or experimental stage of psychology was inaugurated in Germany by the work of K. H. Lotze, Medizinische Psy- chologie (Leipzig, 1852); G. T. Fechner, Ele- niente der Ps^ychophi/sih (ib., 18G0) ; and W. M. Wundt, Grundzitgc dir phys'wloijinchen Psychol- oyie (ib., 1874). It should be added that France has made important contributions to modern psychology from the side of abnormal psj'chology ( Pierre .Janet. H. Bernheini, Th. Kibot, A. Binet) ; and that the work of the English nine- teenth-century writers upon ethndpsyehology (E. B. Tylor, J. Lubbock, H. .Spencer) can hardly be overestimated. The influences that determined the course of ps.vchologieal thought in America were, down to abovit 1880, almost entirely theo- logical and educational ; and the principal works upon mental philosophy (N. Porter. J. ileCosh) belong to the Scotch school of natural realism. In recent years America has made very great advances in experimental psychology-, in which she stands to-dav second onlv to Germany. In the field of chikl psychology "(G. S. Hall, J. il. Baldwin) America has left Germany (W. Prey- er ) far behind. The special departments of psychology are very numerous, and their interrelations not al- ways obvious. We have experimental and physi- ological psychology, race or folk or anthropolog- ical or ethnic psychology, comparative and genetic, animal and child psychology-, social or collective psychology, individual or dift'erential psychology, introspective psychology, abnormal psycholog;- or mental pathology, philosophical and educational or applied psychology. Can we find any guiding principle that shall bring order into this chaos, and exhibit all the psychologies as parts or phases of a unitary whole? We may rule out. first of all, those psychol- ogies which are differentiated from the rest, not by diversity of subjectmatter or of problem, but by empha.sis of method. Experimental psychol- ogy, e.g. is merely psychology treated by the experimental method : and since there is, in prin- ciple, no mental process or complex of processes that is inaccessible to experiment, experimental psychology may be regarded, in principle, as coextensive with psychology. In other words, it is simply an historical accident, the result of the yonthfulness of psychological experimentation and of the very natural concernment of the ex- perimentalist with the processes that yield them- selves most easily to experimental control, that there are some chapters of psycholog>-, as psy- chology is written to-day, in which experi7nent is prominent, and others in which it plays little or no part. So. again, all psychology is intro- spective: either directly introspective (normal human psychology) or analogically introspective (infant and animal psychology): there is no special or peculiar introspective psychology. The phrase is sometimes used to designate a school of thinkers who will hear nothing of the de- pendence of mind upon the nervous system, but seek to elaborate a 'pure' psychology out of nothing but the p.^yche itself — and are thereby comjjeilcd to have recourse to ■unconscious' men- tal processes, which are very far from being given in introspection. This use is, however, mis- leading: it is better to name the founder of the school, and to speak, e.g. of the Xeo-Herbartians. We may rule out, in the second place, those psychologies that transcend the sphere of mind, whether on the side of science or on that of philosophy. Physiological psyehologv, e.g. in- cludes portions of physiology." The problem of physiological psychology is, "first, to examine those vital processes which lie midway between external and internal experience, and which therefore demand the application, at one and the same time, of the two methods of observation, the external and the internal; and, secondly, from the point of view which it has gained in its in- vestigation of these processes, to survey the whole realm of vital phenomena, and thus medi- ate, so far as possible, a comprehensive theory of human existence" (Wundt, Physiologixche Psy- clioloyie, i., 2). Philosophical psychology, or the philosophy of mind, deals with such questions as that of the nature of mind (whether there is a mind-substance, or whether the mental processes, as given, constitute mental realitv: 'substantial- ity' vs. 'actuality') ; of the ultimate elements of mental experience (intellectualism vs. voluntar- ism) ; and of the relation of mind to body, of psychical to physical (parallelism i:s. interac- tion). We may mention: Rehmke, Lehrbuch der allyemeinen Psycholoqie (Hamburg and Leipzig, 1894) ; Ladd, Philosophy of Mind (Xew York, 180.T) ; and iliinsterberg, Grundziige der Psy- chologie, i. (Leipzig, 1900). Lastly, applied psychology is called upon to furnish regulative principles to the art of education. Genetic psy- chology shows how the normal individual de- velops; applied psychology* has to deduce from the genetic data an ideal plan or scheme of the evolution of personality, and then to show how this ideal may be most nearly attained in prac- tice. In the discharge of both offices, it leaves the ground of scientific psychology. There still remain the various subdivisions of psychology proper. We shall realize their inter- connection and mutual relation most easily by taking an analogv. Mind, like the living body, is an organism: in this sense, psychology is the correlate of biology. Now biology falls into sev- eral part-sciences. The individual living organ- ism is. under different aspects, the subject-matter of morphology-, of physiology, and of embryology, ilorphology treats of the structure of the organ- ism, of its composition from cells and from cell- aggregates or tissues. Physiology treats of the organism as a group of functions — respiration, secretion, digestion. Embryology treats of the growth of the organism, structural and func- tional alike, following the changes of tissue and of function that mark the rise and fall of the vital processes. Further, biology deals with groups of organi.sms. with species. Over against morpholog>' stands taxonomy, in which cells and tissues are replaced by organisms and their classes (species, genera, orders, etc.). Over against physiology stands bionomics, in which the function of organs within an individial or- ganism is replaced by the function of species in the economy of their natural environment. And over against embryology stands paleontology, the science of the development of species. Once more: biologj', as pathology, treats of the diseased or
