Polar Exploration/Chapter 10
CHAPTER X
AIMS AND OBJECTS OF MODERN POLAR EXPLORATION
The world shrinks and now there are few parts of the globe which have not been traversed.
I say purposely traversed, for many parts traversed have not been explored. A race across Africa, from Paris to Pekin on a motor car, or what has been aptly called the "boyish Pole hunt," can now no longer be regarded as serious exploration. In fact, in Polar exploration especially, people are beginning to see the comparative uselessness of such journeys, and rarely can any Polar expedition get money unless the leader announces that such and such scientific investigations are to be made by a staff of experts, and that such and such scientific results are likely to accrue. Yet what the mass of the public desire is pure sensationalism, therefore the Polar explorer who attains the highest latitude and who has the powers of making a vivid picture of the difficulties and hardships involved will be regarded popularly as the hero, and will seldom fail to add materially to his store of worldly welfare; while he who plods on an unknown tract of land or sea and works there in systematic and monographic style will probably not have such worldly success, unless his business capacity is such as to allow him to turn to his advantage products of commercial value in the lands and seas he has been exploring.
The general rule, however, is that the man of science opens the way and reveals the treasures of the unknown, and the man of business follows and reaps the commercial advantage, and where this is not the case and the man of science takes to money-making, the chances are that the world has rather lost than gained by his transition. It is right, therefore, that the man of science who has not the time or the inclination to devote his life to the gathering of gold should look to those who have this for their chief aim in life to support him in investigations of the unknown, or to those who, by the industry of their ancestors, have more than is necessary for at least a life of comfort.
In the face of these facts it is interesting to note that there are men of great wealth and of no narrow interests who nevertheless declare that they cannot see the use of such expeditions.
Exactly the same encouragement that Columbus received more than four centuries ago! Was there ever a more madcap expedition than that one? A veritable nutshell was to sail westward into the unknown and was to face dangers beyond all the powers of human conception.
If there is not wealth equal to that of the New World of Christopher Columbus, there is no reason to suppose that very great wealth does not exist in the Polar Regions, considering the increased power given to man by the advancement of science, which is constantly showing new ways and means for discovering and making use of Nature's resources.
So far I have been trying to answer the question which the Polar explorer constantly gets asked him by the business man who has not had any scientific training, viz.: What is the use of these Polar expeditions? If the sole aim is to reach the North or the South Pole, or to get nearer to it than any one has been before, the answer must be that it is of little value either to science or commerce. That is the accomplishment of an athletic feat only to be carried out by those who have splendid physical development. But if it refers to expeditions well equipped with every means for the scientific survey of a definite section of the world—be it land or sea—then the answer is different. To add to the store of human knowledge means increased power of adding to human comfort. It also means making another step into the forever unfathomable unknown, and it is the duty of the scientific explorer as a pioneer to investigate a definite area of the unknown with a staff of competent specialists.
Modern Polar exploration must be conducted in this manner. Having decided whether one's energies are to be applied to the Arctic or Antarctic Regions, the explorer has to make up his mind whether it be land or sea that he is about to explore, and, having determined that, and being well acquainted with the literature of his subject, and having had previous practical training in the work he is about to undertake, he chooses his definite area. It may be a large or a small area. It may be one that has been previously traversed and of which a hazy idea may be had. It may be over lands untrodden by the foot of man or seas as yet unfathomed. Suppose it is a detailed investigation of the North Polar Basin. The explorer must first have a good ship, built somewhat on the lines of the Scotia or Fram, for resisting and evading ice pressure, and, following the idea of Nansen's drift, he will sail for the Behring Straits, making his base of departure British Columbia or Japan. Then working northward as far as possible through the pack ice, the ship will eventually be beset firmly in the autumn or even earlier, and, if she be of the right build, with safety. Now, as far as the ship is concerned, she must be made snug for the winter, and she becomes to all intents and purposes a house for the next three, or may be four, years. She will drift right across the North Polar Basin, and will emerge from the Polar pack somewhere between Greenland and Spitsbergen. The probability is that she will pass almost if not right through the position of the North Pole. But all this may be counted worthless if there is not complete and thorough equipment of men, instruments, and other material for scientific investigation. The expedition must be for the thorough examination of the Polar Basin—that is, it must be an expedition fitted out primarily for oceanographical research. The leader of the expedition should be a scientific man, and should certainly be one who has gained knowledge by having carried on scientific research in one or more departments in the service of some previous expedition. He must also be practically acquainted with the handling of an oceanographical ship. Without such experience, be he landsman or seaman, failure must be the result.
The scientific staff must include well-trained men able to organise the work of their various departments under the co-ordination of the leader. Astronomy; meteorology, including an investigation of the higher atmosphere by means of balloons and kites, as well as sea-level observations; magnetism; ocean physics, including an investigation of currents, temperature, specific gravity at all depths from the surface to the bottom; bathymetry, including a complete study of the shape of the floor of the Polar Basin; geology, especially a study of the nature of the bottom; biology, an investigation of every living thing, those animals that live on the bottom of the sea, those who swim on or near the surface or in intermediate depths—in short, benthoic, planktonic and nektonic research; a study of the algæ and animals that may be found in association with the ice itself, as well as an investigation of every animal or plant above the surface of the ocean. Six or eight scientific men would not be too few to form the scientific staff, and they must be provided with at least two laboratories, a scientific storeroom, and photographic room. The leader himself being well acquainted with conditions of work in the Polar Regions, it is not essential that the scientific staff should be, but it would be an advantage that his chief-of-staff had some ice experience, and that he should be able to take up the reins in the event of the serious illness or death of the leader. The scientific side of the ship should be separate from the nautical, and the leader must be the intermediary and guiding hand for both. The master of the ship must be subject to the leader, and the crew entirely responsible to the master, the leader strongly supporting the master in this position. It is questionable how far commercial advantage would be derived from such an expedition, probably none immediately, though almost certainly some to a future generation if not to our own. But the increase of human knowledge by the thorough survey of a definite area of our globe in a systematic manner is sufficient to warrant such an expedition being carried out.
This is the chief piece of work (in the North Polar Regions) that remains to be done on an extensive scale, and which must extend over a long period of time without a break, and it is understood that this forms more or less the programme of Captain Amundsen, who left Norway in 1910, although by telegrams received on the outward voyage of the Fram, which is his ship, it appears doubtful whether he is not going to confine his attentions to the Antarctic Regions instead! But there is much Arctic work to be done in other directions, such as, for instance, the work that the Prince of Monaco has been carrying on in the exploration of the upper atmosphere, or the detailed survey of a definite area of land or sea, and general oceanographical research; also such detailed survey work as has been carried out by the three Scottish Expeditions during the years 1906, 1907, 1909, in Prince Charles Foreland. (See Scottish Geographical Magazine, vol. xxii, 1906, p. 385; vol. xxiii, 1907, pp. 141–156, 319, 490.) This island, about 54 miles long and about 6 miles wide, forms a considerable part of the west coast of the archipelago of Spitsbergen. Prince Charles Foreland, named after Charles, son of James VI of Scotland, has been known to exist for more than 300 years, yet there has been practically complete ignorance of its form, geology, fauna and flora. Ships passing fear to approach its coasts on account of unknown and often imaginary dangers. Science demanded thorough investigation of this unknown land, and some have been trying to satisfy this demand of the world of science. What is the result? Already, before the work is complete, commerce has followed on the heels of science, and before the Scots left the island in 1907, Norwegian hunters set up three houses for the winter. The Scottish Expedition carried on a considerable amount of local hydrographic work, especially in Foul Sound and in the vicinity of some of the anchorages, and now ships can approach with greater safety the coasts of this previously unknown land, which, until recently, they have justly feared so much. Many other instances of work of this kind could be quoted that have been carried on during recent years and is still being continued. Leigh Smith, Baron Nordenskjold, Nansen, Nathorst, the Prince of Monaco, the Duke of Orleans, and Amundsen may be numbered among others as pioneers of systematic scientific research in the Arctic Regions.
It would be of interest to take the chart of the Arctic Regions and to enumerate the different parts that yet remain to be explored—their name is legion. The Beaufort Sea, and the islands and channels to the north of the American continent, offer especially a splendid field for topographical, hydrographical, biological, geological and other research. Much valuable work is to be accomplished by a series of stations set up in strategic places for biological research, and the same may be said for magnetism and meteorology—especially if associated with investigation of the higher atmosphere. Denmark deserves great credit for recently setting up a biological station in Davis Strait in the manner here indicated. This has been accomplished by the generosity of Justice A. Hoek, and is backed up by an annual grant of £600 from the Danish Government towards its maintenance (Scottish Geographical Magazine, vol. xxi, No. 2, 1905; No. 5, 1905; vol. xxii, No. 4, 1906). Similar stations could with little difficulty be set up in Spitsbergen, Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya, and possibly also in Jan Mayen, East Greenland, and the shores of northern Canada and Siberia. This form of research is one of the most valuable forms of exploration yet to be accomplished. The station should in each case be provided with a moderate-sized steam or motor launch.
Now, turning our attention to the South Polar Regions, we find the most interesting field in the world for exploration, especially with modern methods. Almost everything south of 40° S. requires thorough investigation and overhauling, and vast stores of information are to be gathered both from sea and land. And let us not neglect too much the sea, more especially since we are a sea-faring and sea-loving nation. The pride and glory of our past is largely due to the intrepidity and alertness of our seamen. Yet with all this, not only the public generally, but even many scientific people think much more of an accidental discovery of land than of any amount of hard, plodding work carried on at sea. So much so that if an expedition investigates 150 miles of unknown land it is said to have made "important geographical discoveries," whereas, if it investigate, with equal if not greater detail, 150 miles of unknown sea, it will be said that the expedition made "no geographical discoveries." The reason is that, especially in Britain, few people really appreciate a map, so notoriously bad is the teaching of geography and so little is it encouraged. The ordinary atlas simply paints a blue colour over the surface of the sea, and will give for its series of special maps political land areas, and these even without any interpretation of the "why" and the "wherefore." In these maps care is taken to omit as much of the sea as possible compatible with a certain rectangular space, and the sea that is shown is merely a meaningless pale blue wash. Scarcely any attempt whatever is made to show whether these stretches of sea are deep or shallow, clear or muddy, brown or blue, rough or smooth; there are few indications of currents—tidal or otherwise. In many ways, in spite of an increasing number of scientific ships sailing over the ocean, we tend not only to care less and less about the sea, but actually in some ways to know less about it. To the great 20,000-ton leviathan going twenty to twenty-five knots, weather conditions, currents, etc., of vital importance to smaller and less powerful craft are of little significance—these monsters race through everything. The thousands of passengers in these ships make a voyage and know no more about the sea over which they have travelled than if they had been staying in a palatial hotel ashore. In these days ships go on definite tracks and repeat their voyage year after year over exactly the same narrow belt of sea; those on board know nothing of the ocean outside that belt of 30 miles in breadth. In the old days sailing vessels were driven hundreds and even thousands of miles off direct tracks, and saw actually much more than we do nowadays, especially since the vessels were slower and smaller, and the surface of the sea more readily accessible to those on board. Thus the stories of great sea monsters might not be so fabulous as supposed, though those in small craft and without scientific training might possibly get a somewhat exaggerated idea of their size and shape.
In the Antarctic and subantarctic Regions great opportunities present themselves both for a study of the sea and the land, and to the writer's mind it is a study of the subantarctic and then Antarctic seas that is at present most urgent, including an exploration and definition of the southern borders of those seas.
I say, designedly, the southern borders of those seas, and not the outline of Antarctica or the coast-line of the Antarctic Continent, because it is from the oceanographical stand-point that I believe we should make this attack in the first place and to a much larger extent than heretofore. The early navigators attacked the south in this manner, and, more recently, with modern scientific methods, the Challenger, Valdivia, Belgica, Scotia and Pourquoi-pas?. Only the last three vessels have done serious biological and physical work south of the Antarctic Circle, and the Scotia alone in the great depths in very high southern latitudes.
More than anything that is required is a new expedition on the same lines as the Scotia, and the author is ready to organise such an expedition as soon as funds are provided. Such an expedition should be provided with one ship of about 250 to 300 tons register, and should carry a complement of about thirty-six men, including six men of science. The vessel must be provided with all the most modern oceanographical equipment, and must be prepared to work in depths exceeding 3,000 fathoms. A definite area must be selected, and I should choose for the new Scottish Expedition, which hopes to set sail in 1912, the region south of 40° S. in the South Atlantic Ocean, avoiding the tracks of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition in 1902–04, but complementing and supplementing the Scotia explorations. A suitable base from which to commence operations is Buenos Aires. A start from there should be made in the early spring—say not later than August 1st—a zigzag course under sail could then be steered between latitudes 40° S. and 55° S., a visit to Gough Island and the other islands of the Tristan d'Acunha Group being included; a double or treble line of soundings, with a regular series of physical observations at each station, should be made, and the trawl should be lowered two or three times every week. No haste is required on this voyage; the vessel would be going before the westerly winds under sail the whole time, coal being husbanded for handling the vessel during sounding, trawling, etc. Cape Town would be the first port of call, and thus a belt of 1,000 miles in width, over 3,500 miles in length would be covered, where (with the exception of some soundings and trawlings made by the Scotia in 1904) no oceanographical work has been done at all. Whilst crossing the "Scotia Rise," which the Scottish Expedition discovered as an extension of the Mid-Atlantic rise 1,000 miles farther to the south, it would be interesting and important to attempt by means of grippers to obtain samples of the rocks in situ of which this rise is built. At Cape Town all the scientific material and the first copy of the scientific logs should be sent home in case of accident to the ship in her second voyage, a precaution that should always be taken by every expedition. The ship and all her gear would be thoroughly overhauled, and she would be filled up with coal and provisions. Her next course would be for the South Sandwich Group, and an arrangement should be made for a vessel with coal and fresh food to meet her there. Here the special object is to carry on the bathymetrical survey in the region where opinion is divided as to whether deep or relatively shallow water exists, namely, that portion cautiously marked in the Scottish chart (Scottish Geographical Magazine, vol. xxi, 1905, pp. 402–412) lying between the south end of the "Scotia Rise" and the Sandwich Group. This is of vital importance in the study of continental connections. A short time would be spent in the South Sandwich Group, especially with a view of obtaining a knowledge of the geology and natural history of the islands. Having filled up with coal, a cruise eastward to Bouvet Island should be made to determine more definitely whether or no there is a "rise connection" between the Sandwich Group and that island, and also with the south end of the "Scotia Rise." From Bouvet Island a southerly course should be steered towards the southern boundary of the Biscoe Sea and a thorough connection made between the Valdivia and Scotia bathymetrical surveys. In March it would be necessary to decide whether the expedition was to winter in the south, but in no circumstances, if it can possibly be avoided, should the ship winter. She is there for oceanographical research, and must not be turned into a harbour hulk. Accidents will happen, and she might be beset and forced to winter, for which she must be thoroughly prepared. But if there is a wintering, it should, if possible, be by a party of about half-a-dozen men in a house on shore.
This project for Antarctic exploration does not lend itself in the least to the attainment of a high latitude. It is almost certain, in fact, that the ship in question would not pass the 75th parallel of latitude, and it is more than probable that it would pass little beyond 70° S., but there is no doubt that for systematic serious scientific work, this would be one of the most profitable forms of Antarctic exploration that we could undertake. A single example is again taken of what is to be done in Antarctic seas, but it might be pointed out that half-a-dozen ships doing this same work in similar but different areas all round the South Pole would all obtain results of the highest importance.
As regards land work in the Antarctic Regions, this can be undertaken more satisfactorily after we have obtained a more definite idea of the confines of the Great Southern Ocean around Antarctica. At present there is too much hazy conjecture, and we find what one believes to be part of Antarctica itself another declares to be an island. But the land work has begun, and to the keen landsman there is no reason why it should not be going ahead. In the past the splendid land journeys of Scott and Armitage have given us the first definite idea of the interior of Antarctica, and Shackleton has been able to make further most important additions to our knowledge of the interior of the Antarctic continent. Similar inland as well as shore expeditions, such as that suggested by Dr. Forbes Mackay (Geographical Journal, January 1911), should be made at many points all round the Antarctic continent, but any expedition of this kind must necessarily have a good base station and be supported by a ship. The retention of a ship at the base is entirely unnecessary, though, as indicated previously, ice conditions might unwillingly entrap the vessel, in which case she must be properly prepared for wintering.
Valuable land work could be carried out by a party accompanying this expedition to the Weddell and Biscoe Seas. Here the coastline of Antarctica will probably be found to lie somewhere between 70° S. and 75° S. and to run in a more or less east and west direction. Having found a suitable anchorage, and the house being set up with a complete establishment for meteorology, magnetism, biology, and other scientific investigations, the party would make inland excursions towards the south. Should there be sufficient funds, it would be well to have a second ship for the express purpose of carrying an extra supply of stores and a house, rather than lumber up the oceanographical ship with all this material. If the lie of the land be found to be as expected, a serious attempt would be made to cross the Antarctic Continent and to emerge somewhere along the coast of the Ross Sea, the journey being made more or less along the meridian of Greenwich on the Atlantic side, and continuing on about the 180th meridian on the Pacific side. Such a journey would be of more intrinsic value than a journey towards the South Pole and back. It would give a complete sectional idea of the continent of Antarctica, and the expedition would never be covering the same ground a second time. This is a big project, and one would have to face the chances of failure, but it ought to be attempted. Already England and Japan are in the field, and Germany and Australia are ready to start, and it is hoped that Scotland once more will shortly be enabled to join hands in co-operative exploration to the Antarctic Regions. Shackleton and Scott have wisely led the way by actually trying motor power, which the author has been advocating for many years, for the accomplishment of such a journey. It is an experiment; it may fail, but it is more likely to succeed, and even if it fails it will be one step in advance towards the use of motor power in future Polar expeditions. All such pioneer attempts must take their chance of success or failure in a new application given to us by the advance of science.
This area, where Bellingshausen and Biscoe almost a century ago have alone given us a clue, strengthened by the investigations of Ross and of the Scotia, offers an especially fine field for meteorological and magnetical research. This is because of the systematised series of meteorological stations which exist to the north-westward of the region right up to the South American continent—thanks to the efforts of the Scotia and of the energetic Argentine Republic that has backed up and continued the work of that expedition. Such an expedition will give a very complete idea of the meteorology and magnetism of the South Polar Regions in all western longitudes, and in meteorology especially is required a systematic and synchronous series of observations such as are here indicated.
The world shrinks, but, after all, this is only from the point of view of those who do not look into futurity. Each scientific investigation leads to the discovery of new scientific facts and problems not only unknown, but often entirely unconceived. Newer and wider fields for investigation will offer themselves in the future than in the past; rather, then, should we say, the world expands!