The Origins of the Islamic State/Part 5/Chapter 1

by Aḥmad ibn Yaḥyá al-Balādhurī

PART V

NORTHERN AFRICA

CHAPTER I

The Conquest of Egypt and Al-Maghrib [Mauritania]

ʿAmr moves against Egypt. After the battle of al-Yarmûk, ʿAmr ibn-al-ʿÂṣi laid siege to Caesarea [Ḳaisârîyah]. When Yazîd ibn-abi-Sufyân assumed power, ʿAmr left his son in his place at Caesarea and led, all of his own accord, an army of 3,500 to Egypt. ʿUmar was angry because of it and wrote to him, rebuking and reprimanding him for following his own opinion, without consulting ʿUmar, and ordering him to return home in case the message was received before his arrival in Egypt. ʿAmr, however, received the message in al-ʿArîsh.^[1] It is asserted by others that ʿUmar wrote to ʿAmr ibn-al-ʿÂṣi, ordering him to proceed to Egypt. ʿAmr received the message as he was besieging Caesarea. The one who delivered the message was Sharîk ibn-ʿAbdah, to whom ʿAmr gave 1,000 dînârs, which Sharîk refused to accept. ʿAmr asked him to conceal the matter and not disclose it to ʿUmar.

Al-Fusṭâṭ. The advance of ʿAmr against Egypt took place in the year 19. He first stopped at al-ʿArîsh and then proceeded to al-Faramâʾ,^[2] in which were troops ready for the fight. ʿAmr fought and defeated them, taking possession of their camp. Thence he advanced straight on to al-Fusṭâṭ and camped at the myrtle gardens, as the people of al-Fusṭâṭ had dug moats. The name of the city was Alyûnah,^[3] but the Moslems called it Fusṭâṭ because they said, "This is the meeting place [Ar. fusṭâṭ] of the people, and the place where they assemble." Others say that ʿAmr pitched a tent [also fusṭâṭ] in it, and it bore its name from it.^[4]

As ʿAmr ibn-al-Âṣi was besieging al-Fusṭâṭ, he was joined by az-Zubair ibn-al-ʿAuwâm ibn-Khuwailid at the head of 10,000—others say 12,000 men—among whom were Khârijah ibn-Ḥudhâfah-l-ʿAdawi and ʿUmair ibn-Wahb al-Jumaḥi. Az-Zubair was on the point of leading an incursion and wanted to go to Antioch; but ʿUmar said to him, "Abu-ʿAbdallâh, wouldst thou like to take the governorship of Egypt?" To this az-Zubair replied, "I do not care for it, but would like to go there on a holy war and co-operate with the Moslems. If I find that ʿAmr has already reduced it, I would not interfere with his affairs, but would go to some sea-coast and keep post at it; but if I find him in the struggle, I shall fight on his side." With this understanding, he left.

Az-Zubair led the attack on one side, and ʿAmr ibn-al-ʿÂṣi on the other. Finally az-Zubair brought a ladder and climbed on it until, with his sword unsheathed, he looked down upon the fort and exclaimed, "Allah is great!" and so did the Moslems exclaim and follow him up. Thus he took the fort by assault, and the Moslems considered it legal to take all that was in it. ʿAmr made its holders dhimmis, imposed a poll-tax on their person and kharâj on their land, and communicated that to ʿUmar ibn-al-Khaṭṭâb who endorsed it. Az-Zubair marked certain lots in Miṣr [Old Cairo] for himself [ikhtaṭṭa] and built a well-known mansion in which ʿAbdallâh ibn-az-Zubair resided when he invaded Ifrîḳiyah^[5] in the company of ibn-abi-Sarḥ. The ladder which az-Zubair used is still in Miṣr.

ʿAffân ibn-Muslim from Hishâm ibn-ʿUrwah:—Az-Zubair was sent to Miṣr; and when he was told there were in it warfare and pest, he replied, "We have come here only for warfare and pest." The Moslems put ladders up and climbed on them.

ʿAmr an-Nâḳid from Yazîd ibn-abi-Ḥabîb:—ʿAmr ibn-al-ʿÂṣi entered Egypt with 3,500 men. When ʿUmar ibn-al-Khaṭṭâb heard about the situation in Egypt, he was affected with solicitude and fear and despatched az-Zubair ibn-al-ʿAuwâm at the head of 12,000 men. Az-Zubair took part in the conquest of Miṣr and marked out in it certain lots.^[6]

The division of the land. ʿAmr an-Nâḳid from Sufyân ibn-Wahb al-Khaulâni:—When we conquered Miṣr without making a covenant with it, az-Zubair rose and said to ʿAmr, "Divide it"; but ʿAmr refused. Then az-Zubair said, "By Allah, thou shouldst divide it as the Prophet divided Khaibar." ʿAmr wrote that to ʿUmar who wrote back, saying, "Leave it as it is, so that the descendants of the descendants^[7] may profit by it."

A tradition to the same effect was communicated to me by ʿAbdallâh ibn-Wahb on the authority of Sufyân ibn-Wahb.

ʿAmr and az-Zubair conquer Egypt. Al-Ḳâsim ibn-Sallâm from Yazîd ibn-abi-Ḥabîb:—ʿAmr ibn-al-ʿÂṣi entered Egypt at the head of 3,500 men. Just before that, ʿUmar was affected with solicitude and fear and sent az-Zubair ibn-al-ʿAuwâm at the head of 12,000 men. Az-Zubair took part with ʿAmr in the conquest of Egypt and marked out for himself two lots in Miṣr and Alexandria.

Ibrâhîm ibn-Muslim al-Khawârizmi from ʿAbdallâh ibn-ʿAmr ibn-al-ʿÂṣi:—The latter said, "There is a disagreement regarding the conquest of Miṣr: some say it was conquered by force, and others by capitulation. The fact is that my father [ʿAmr ibn-al-ʿÂṣi] arrived in it and was resisted by the people of Alyûnah. He finally took possession of it by force and led the Moslems in. Az-Zubair was the first to climb its fort. The chief of Miṣr said to my father, 'We have heard of what ye did in Syria and how ye assessed poll-tax on the Christians and Jews, leaving the land in the hands of its owners to utilize it and pay its kharâj. If ye treat us the same way, it would do you more good than to kill, capture and expel us.' My father consulted with the Moslems and they all advised him to accept the terms, with the exception of a few men who asked him to divide the land among them. Accordingly, he assessed on every adult, excepting the poor, two dînârs as poll-tax, and on every land-owner, in addition to the two dînârs, three irdabbs of wheat, two ḳisṭs of oil, two ḳisṭs of honey and two ḳisṭs of vinegar, to be given as a subsistence allowance to the Moslems, and gathered in the public house of provision [dâr-ar-rizḳ], where it is divided among them. A census was taken of the Moslems, and the inhabitants of Miṣr were required to provide every one of the Moslems with a woolen upper gown, an upper cloak or turban, breeches and a pair of shoes^[8] per annum. Instead of the woolen gown, a Coptic robe would do. To this end, a statement was written, in which it was stipulated that so long as they lived up to these terms, their women and children would neither be sold nor taken captives, and their possessions and treasures would be kept in their hands.^[9] The statement was submitted to ʿUmar, the 'Commander of the Believers,' who endorsed it. Thus, the whole land became kharâj-land. Because, however, ʿAmr signed the contract and the statement, some people thought that Miṣr was taken by capitulation."^[10]

After the king of Alyûnah had made arrangements for himself and for the people in his city, he made terms on behalf of all the Egyptians similar to the terms of Alyûnah. The Egyptians consented, saying, "If those of us who are protected by fortifications have accepted such terms, and were content with them, how much more should we be content who are weak and have no power of resistance." Kharâj was assessed on the land of Egypt to the amount of one dînâr and three irdabbs of wheat on every jarîb, and two dînârs on every adult. The statement was submitted to ʿUmar ibn-al-Khaṭṭâb.

The terms made with ʿAmr. ʿAmr an-Nâḳid from Yazîd ibn-abi-Ḥabîb:—Al-Muḳauḳis^[11] made terms with ʿAmr ibn-al-ʿÂṣi, stipulating that ʿAmr should let those of the Greeks go who wanted to leave, and keep those who wanted to stay, on certain conditions, which he specified, and that he would assess on the Copts, two dînârs per head. Hearing this, the king of the Greeks was enraged and sent his troops, who, closing the gates of Alexandria, announced to ʿUmar their readiness for war. Al-Muḳauḳis presented himself before ʿAmr and said, "I have three requests to make: do not offer to the Greeks the same terms thou hast offered me, because they have distrusted me; do not violate the terms made with the Copts, for the violation was not started by them ; and when I die, give orders that I be buried in a church at Alexandria (which he named)." ʿAmr answered, " The last is the easiest^[12] for me."

Bilhît, al-Khais, Sulṭais and Alexandria. Certain villages in Egypt resisted the advance of the Moslems, and ʿAmr carried away some of their inhabitants as prisoners. These were the following: Bilhît,^[13] al-Khais,^[14] and Sulṭais.^[15] Their captives were carried away to al-Madînah. ʿUmar ibn-al-Khaṭṭâb sent them back and made them, together with the Coptic community, dhimmis. The covenant they had, they did not violate. The following is the report of the conquest of Alexandria made by ʿAmr to ʿUmar: "Allah has given to us the possession of Alexandria by force and against its will, without covenant or contract". According to Yazîd ibn-abi-Ḥabîb, however, the city was taken by capitulation.

The tax of Egypt. Abu-Aiyûb ar-Raḳḳi from Yazîd ibn-abi-Ḥabîb: The kharâj and poll-tax which ʿAmr raised from Egypt amounted to 2,000,000 dînârs; but that raised by ʿAbdallâh ibn-Saʿd ibn-Abi-Sarḥ, 4,000,000. When ʿUthmân remarked to ʿAmr, saying, "After thee the milch camels have yielded more milk", ʿAmr replied, "This is because ye have emaciated their young".^[16]

In the year 21, ʿUmar ibn-al-Khaṭṭâb wrote to ʿAmr ibn-al-ʿÂṣi informing him of the straits in which the inhabitants of al-Madînah were, and ordering him to transport by sea to al-Madînah all the food he had collected as kharâj. Accordingly, the food with the oil was carried there; and when it reached al-Jâr,^[17] it was received by Saʿd al-Jâr.^[18] Later it was kept in a special house at al-Madînah and distributed among the Moslems by measure. At the time of the first insurrection, the supply was cut off. In the days of Muʿâwiyah and Yazîd, it was again carried to al-Madînah. Then it was cut off until the time of ʿAbd-al-Malik ibn-Marwân, after which it was carried until the caliphate of abu-Jaʿfar, or a little previous to that.

Bakr ibn-al-Haitham from Yazîd ibn-abi-Ḥabib:—After the first peace was made, the tax-payers in Egypt made new terms in the caliphate of ʿUmar, stipulating that instead of the wheat, oil, honey and vinegar they offered, they would pay two dînârs in addition to the other two dînârs. Each one thus was bound to pay four dînârs; and they consented to that and preferred it.

ʿAin Shams, al-Faiyûm and other places reduced. Abu-Aiyûb ar-Raḳḳi from al-Jaishâni:—The latter said, "I heard it stated by a number of those who witnessed the conquest of Egypt that when ʿAmr ibn-al-ʿÂṣi reduced al-Fusṭâṭ, he despatched to ʿAin Shams^[19] ʿAbdallâh ibn-Ḥudhâfah as-Sahmi, who took possession of its land and made terms with the inhabitants of its villages similar to those of al-Fusṭâṭ. Likewise ʿAmr despatched Khârijah ibn-Ḥudhâfah al-ʿAdawi to al-Faiyûm,^[20] al-Ushmûnain, Ikhmîm, al-Basharûdât^[21] and the villages of upper Egypt, which he reduced on the same terms. ʿAmr also sent ʿUmair ibn-Wahb al-Jumaḥi to Tinnîs, Dimyâṭ, Tûnah, Damîrah, Shaṭa, Diḳahlah,^[22] Bana and Bûṣir, which he reduced on the same terms. ʿAmr also sent ʿUḳbah ibn-ʿÂmir al-Juhani (others say ʿAmr's freedman, Wardân after whom Sûḳ [market] Wardân in Egypt is named) to the rest of the villages in the lower part of the country; and he did the same. Thus did ʿAmr ibn-al-ʿÂsi effect the conquest of all Egypt and make its land kharâj-land."

The Copts have no covenant. Al-Ḳâsim ibn-Sallâm from Aiyûb ibn-abi-l-ʿÂliyah's father:—The latter said, "I heard ʿAmr ibn-al-ʿÂṣi say from the pulpit, 'I have occupied this position and am bound to none of the Egyptian Copts by covenant or contract. If I want, I can kill; if I want, I can take one-fifth of the possessions; if I want, I can sell captives. The people of Anṭâbulus are excluded because they have a covenant which must be kept'."

Al-Maghrib and Egypt taken by force. Al-Ḳâsim ibn-Sallâm from Mûsa ibn-ʿAli ibn-Rabâḥ al-Lakhmi's father:—All al-Maghrib was taken by force.

Abu-ʿUbaid from aṣ-Ṣalt ibn-abi-ʿÂṣim, the secretary of Ḥaiyân ibn-Shuraiḥ:—The latter said that he read the letter of ʿUmar ibn-ʿAbd-al-ʿAziz to Ḥaiyân, his ʿâmil over Egypt, stating that Egypt was taken by force, with no covenant or contract.

Poll-tax of the Copts not to be increased. Abu-ʿUbaid from ʿUbaidallâh ibn-abi-Jaʿfar:—Muʿâwiyah wrote to Wardân, a freedman of ʿAmr, ordering him to increase the poll-tax of every Copt by one ḳîrâṭ, but Wardân wrote back, "How can I increase it while it is stated in their covenant that their tax should not be increased?"

Egyptians overtaxed. Muḥammad ibn-Saʿd from ʿAbd-al-Ḥamîd ibn-Jaʿfar's father:—The latter heard ʿUrwah ibn-az-Zubair say, "I spent seven years in Egypt and was married in it. I found its people exhausted, being burdened with more than they could bear. The country was conquered by ʿAmr through capitulation, covenant and something assessed on the inhabitants."

The statement of ʿAmr. Bakr ibn-al-Haitham from ʿUḳbah ibn-ʿÂmir al-Juhani:—The Egyptians had a covenant and a contract. ʿAmr gave them a statement to the effect that they ere secure with respect to their possessions, lives and children, and that none of them would be sold as slaves. He imposed on them a kharâj not to be increased, and promised to expel all fear of attack by an enemy. ʿUḳbah added, "And I was a witness thereunto".

The division of the land. Al-Ḥusain ibn-al-Aswad from Sufyân ibn-Wahb al-Khaulâni:—The latter said, "At the conquest of Miṣr by us, which was effected without covenant, az-Zubair ibn-al-ʿAuwâm rose and said, 'ʿAmr, divide it between us!' ʿAmr replied, 'By Allah, I will not divide it before I consult ʿUmar.' He wrote to ʿUmar, and the latter wrote back, 'Leave it as it is, so that the descendants of the descendants may profit by it."'

Its kharâj. Muḥammad ibn-Saʿd from Usâmah ibn-Zaid ibn-Aslam's grandfather:—In the year 20, ʿAmr ibn-al-ʿÂṣi, accompanied by az-Zubair, subdued Egypt. When Egypt was conquered, the people made terms, agreeing to pay something he imposed on them, which was two dînârs on every man, excluding women and boys. The kharâj of Egypt during his governorship amounted to 2,000,000 dînârs; but later it reached 4,000,000.

Two dînârs on each Copt. Abu-ʿUbaid from Yazîd ibn-abi-Ḥabîb:—Al-Muḳauḳis, the chief of Egypt, made terms with ʿAmr ibn-al-ʿÂṣi, stipulating that each Copt pays two dînârs. Hearing this, Heraclius, the chief of the Greeks, was enraged with anger and sent the troops to Alexandria and closed its gates; but ʿAmr reduced the city by force.

The poll-tax of the native village of umm-Ibrâhîm annulled. Ibn-al-Ḳattât, i. e., abu-Masʿûd, from ash-Shaʿbi:—ʿAli ibn-al-Ḥusain, or al-Ḥusain himself, interceded with Muʿâwiyah regarding the poll-tax of the fellow- villagers in Egypt of the mother of Ibrâhîm,^[23] the Prophet's son; and it was cancelled. The Prophet himself used to recommend that the Copts be favorably treated.

The Prophet recommends the Copts. ʿAmr from Mâlik, and al-Laith from a son of Kaʿb ibn-Mâlik:—The Prophet said, "If ye conquer Egypt, treat the Copts favorably, because they have dhimmah and blood-relationship." It is stated by al-Laith that umm-Ismâʿîl^[24] was a Copt.

ʿUmar confiscates ʿAmr's possessions. Abu-l-Ḥasan al-Madâʾini from ʿAbdallâh ibn-al-Mubârak:—ʿUmar ibn-al-Khaṭṭâb used to record the possessions of his ʿâmils at the time of their appointment; and whatsoever was later added was partly or wholly confiscated by him. He once wrote to ʿAmr ibn-al-ʿÂṣi, "It has become revealed that thou ownest commodities, slaves, vases and animals which thou didst not possess when thou wert made governor of Egypt." ʿAmr wrote back, "Our land is a land of agriculture and trade; we, therefore, get as income more than what is necessary for our expenses." To this, ʿUmar replied, "I have had enough experience with the wicked ʿâmils. Thy letter is the letter of one disturbed because justice has been meted out to him. Therefore, my suspicion has been aroused against thee, and I have sent to thee Muḥammad ibn-Maslamah with a view to dividing with thee what thou hast. Reveal to him thy secret, and give out whatever he demands of thee; thereby thou wouldst be spared his severity. What is concealed has been revealed.^[25]" Thus were ʿAmr's possessions confiscated by ʿUmar.

Al-Madâʾini from ʿÎsa ibn-Yazîd:—When Muḥammad ibn-Maslamah divided with ʿAmr ibn-al-ʿÂṣi his possessions, ʿAmr made this remark, "An age in which the son of Ḥantamah^[26] treats us in this manner is certainly an evil age. Al-ʿÂṣi used to put on silk garments with brocade borders!" "Hush," said Muḥammad, "had it not been for this age of ibn-Ḥantamah which thou hatest, thou wouldst be found bending in the court-yard of thy house, at the feet of a goat, whose abundance of milk would please thee and scarcity would displease thee."^[27] "I beg thee by Allah," exclaimed ʿAmr, "report not what I have just uttered to ʿUmar. A conversation is always confidential." Muḥammad replied, "So long as ʿUmar lives, I shall not mention anything that took place between us."

Egypt taken by force. ʿAmr an-Nâḳid from ʿAbdallâh ibn-Hubairah:—Egypt was taken by force.

ʿAmr from ibn-Anʿam's grandfather (who witnessed the conquest of Egypt):—Egypt was taken by force without covenant or contract.

Footnotes

1. Al-Maḳrîzi, al-Khiṭaṭ, vol. ii, p. 63 (Cairo, 1325) : "Rafj"; Zaidân, Taʾrîkh Miṣr al-Ḥadîth, vol. i, p. 77; "Rafḥ … modern Rafʿ, ten hours' journey from al-ʿArîsh."
2. Pelusium. Maḥâsin, vol. i, p. 8.
3. Yâḳût, vol. i, pp. 355, 450.
4. Maḳrîzi, vol. ii, pp. 75–76.
5. Africa == Tunis. Ibn-ʿAdhâri, al-Bayân al-Mughrib, vol. i, pp. 3 seq.
6. Ar. khiṭaṭ. See Maḳrîzi, vol. ii, pp. 76 seq.
7. Ar. ḥabal al-ḥabalah. See Muṭarrizi, p. 105 ; Caetani, vol. iv, p. 247; Maḳrizi, vol. ii, p. 72, line 23; p. 73, line 25; an-Nihâyah, vol. i, p. 198.
8. Dozy, Noms des Vêtements, s. v. jubbah, burnus, ʿamâmah, sirwâl and khuff.
9. Gottheil, "Dhimmis and Moslems in Egypt", O. T. and Semitic Studies, vol. ii, p. 363.
10. Maḳrîzi, vol. ii, pp. 72–74.
11. Ibn-Ḳurḳub al-Yûnâni—perhaps Cyrus, the viceroy and archbishop of Alexandria under Heraclius. See Butler, The Arab Conquest of Egypt, pp. 508, 521; Byzant. Zeitschrift, year 1003, p. 1606; Casanova, Moḥammed et la Fin du Monde, p. 26.
12. Maḳrîzi, vol. i, p. 263.
13. Cf. "Balhîb " in Yâḳût, vol. i, p. 733.
14. Butler, p. 289, and note; ibn-Duḳmâḳ, Kitâb al-Intiṣâr li-Wâsiṭat ʿIḳd al-Amṣâr, vol. v, p. 118 (Bûlâḳ, 1893).
15. Cf. Duḳmâḳ, vol. v, pp. 118–119.
16. Maḳrîzi, vol. i, p. 159.
17. Hamdâni, Ṣifat Jazîrat al-ʿArab, p. 47, line 17 (ed. Müller).
18. Saʿd al-Jâri mentioned in Dhahabi, al-Mushtabih, p. 81; cf. ibn-Saʿd, vol. iii¹, p. 240; Yâḳût, vol. ii. p. 6.
19. Heliopolis; confused by some historians with Bâb Alyûnah (Babylon); Butler, p. 212, note.
20. Maḳrîzi, vol. i, pp. 402–403.
21. Cf. Bakri, vol. i, p. 166.
22. Yâḳût, vol. ii, p. 581.
23. Mâriyah, the Copt; Nawâwi, p. 853.
24. The reference is to Hagar.
25. Freytag, Prov., vol. i, p. 160, number 33.
26. ʿUmar ibn-al-Khaṭṭâb's mother; Nawâwi, p. 447.
27. Caetani, vol. iv, pp. 618–619.