The Psychology of Dementia Præcox/Chapter II

by Carl Gustav Jung

 

CHAPTER II.

The Emotional Complex and its General Action on the Psyche.

My theoretical propositions for an understanding of the psychology of dementia præcox are in reality almost entirely exhausted in the contents of the first chapter, for Freud in his works on hysteria, imperative neuroses and dreams has, after all, given all essentials. Nevertheless our ideas gained on an experimental basis differ somewhat from those of Freud. Perhaps my conception of the emotional complex even oversteps the limits of Freud's views.

The essential basis of our personality is affectivity.^[1] Thought and action are only, as it were, symptoms of affectivity.^[2] The elements of our psychic life, sensations, ideas and emotions are given to consciousness in the form of certain entities, which can in a manner be compared to a molecule, if one may venture upon an analogy with chemistry.

To illustrate: I meet on the street an old comrade and immediately an image is formed in my brain, it is a functional entity, the picture of my comrade X. We differentiate in this entity ("molecule") three components ("radicals"); sensory perceptions, intellectual components (ideas, memory pictures, judgments, etc.) and emotional tone.^[3] These three components are firmly united, so that if the memory picture alone of X comes to the surface the elements appertaining to it are regularly always with it. The sensory perception is represented by an accompanying centrifugal stimulation of the sensory spheres concerned. I am therefore justified in speaking here of a functional entity.

Through some thoughtless gossip of comrade X, I once became involved in a very unpleasant affair, the consequences of which I suffered for a long time. This affair embraces a large number of associations (it can be compared to a body made up of a number of molecules), many persons, things and events are contained therewith. The functional entity "my comrade" is only one figure among many. The entire mass of memory has a definite feeling tone, a vivid feeling of anger. Every molecule participates in this feeling tone, so that as a rule it is always accompanied by this feeling, whether appearing alone or in connection with others, and the more identified it becomes with this great union the greater is the feeling tone.^[4]

I once witnessed the following incident: I was taking a walk with a very sensitive and hysterical gentleman. The village bells were pealing a new and very harmonious chime. My companion, who generally displayed great feeling for such tunes, suddenly began to rail at it, saying that he could not bear the disgusting ringing in the major key, that it sounded abominably, that this was an especially disagreeable church and unsightly village (the village is famous for its charming location). This remarkable and inadequate affect interested me and I continued my investigation. My companion then began to abuse the local parson. His reason for the abuse was that the minister had an ugly beard and—wrote very bad poetry. My companion, too, was talented lyrically. The affect then lay in poetic rivalry.

This example shows how the molecule (the chiming, etc.) takes part in the feeling tone of the whole mass of presentations^[5] of the poetic rivalry. We designate this by the name of the emotionally accentuated complex. Considered in this sense the complex is a higher psychic entity. When we come to examine our psychic material, for example, that supplied by the association experiments, we find that every association belongs, as it were, to some complex. (I refer to Contribution IV ff. of the Diag. Assoz.-Stud.) To be sure, it is somewhat difficult to prove this in practice, but the more carefully we analyze the more we find that single associations belong to some complex. Undoubtedly they are related to the ego-complex more than any other. The ego-complex in the normal person is the highest psychic instance. By it we understand the ideational mass of the ego which we believe to be accompanied by the potent and ever-living feeling-tone of our own body.

The feeling-tone is an affective state which is accompanied by bodily innervations. The ego is the psychological expression for the firmly associated union of all general bodily sensations. The personality proper is therefore the firmest and strongest complex, and asserts itself (provided it be healthy) throughout all psychological storms. It is for that reason that the ideas which directly concern one's own personality are the most stable and interesting; in other words, they possess the strongest attention-tone. (Attention in the sense of Bleuler is a state of affectivity.^[6])

 

Acute Effects of the Complex.

Reality sees to it that the quiet circles of egocentric ideation are frequently disturbed by strong feeling tones, so called affects. A situation threatening danger pushes aside the tranquil play of ideas and places in its stead a complex of other ideas of the strongest feeling-tone. The new complex then appears very prominently, crowding all the others into the background. It totally inhibits all other ideas, retaining only those direct egocentric ideas which fit its situation. Under certain conditions it can even momentarily suppress to complete unconsciousness the strongest contrary ideas. It has the strongest attention-tone. (We therefore do not say we concentrate attention on anything, but the state of attention enters into this presentation. See "Diagnost. Assoc.-Stud.," I. Beitrag, Abschnitt B. L.)

Where does an ideational complex get its inhibiting or promoting force?

We have seen that the ego-complex on account of its union with the general sensations of the body is the most stable and richest in associations. The perception of a situation threatening danger excites fear. Fear is an affect, hence it is accompanied by physical conditions, by a complicated harmony of muscular tension and excitation of the sympathetic. The perception has therefore found the way to bodily innervation and in this manner has immediately helped its association-complex to get the upper hand. Owing to this fear numberless general sensibilities of the body become changed, changing thereby most of the sensations lying at the foundation of the general ego. Corresponding to this the ordinary ego loses its attention-tone (or its clearness, or its promoting and inhibiting influence on other associations or other synonyms). It is compelled to give way to the stronger and other general sensations of the new complex. Notwithstanding this, it does not normally perish but remains as a feeble affect-ego^[7] because even very strong affects are unable to change all sensations lying at the foundation of the ego. As every-day experience shows, the affect-ego is a feeble complex, and is considerably inferior to the affect-complex in constellated force.

Let us now assume that the dangerous situation clears rapidly. The complex then soon loses some of its attention-tone, because the general sensations gradually resume their normal characteristics. Yet the affect continues to oscillate for a long time in its physical and hence also in its psychical components. "The knees shake," the heart continues to palpitate excitedly for some time, the face is either flushed or pale, "one can hardly recover from fear." From time to time, at first after short, and later after longer intervals, this picture of fear returns and is charged with new associations, thus exciting waves of affect-reminiscences. This perseveration of the affect, in addition to the great emotional force, also contributes towards the proportional increase in the number of the associations. Therefore extensive complexes are always of great feeling tone, and inversely, strong affects always leave behind extensive complexes. This is simply due to the fact that on the one hand strong complexes contain numerous bodily innervations, and on the other hand, strong affects can constellate many associations, owing to their strong and persistent excitement of the body. Affects may normally continue to act for a long time (in the form of disturbances of the stomach, heart, sleeplessness, trembling, etc.). Gradually, however, they die away, the complexes disappear from consciousness, and only occasionally in dreams there appear more or less hidden intimations. In the associations they continue to show themselves for years in characteristic complex disturbances. But their gradual extinction is prevented by a general psychological peculiarity, namely, their readiness to reappear in almost full force on similar or much weaker stimuli. For a long time after, there exists a condition which I should like to designate as complex-sensitiveness. A child once bitten by a dog will scream with fear if it observes a dog even at a distance. People who have received a painful message will thereafter open all their mail with apprehension, etc. These complex effects, which under certain conditions will extend over long periods, leads us to the consideration of the

 

Chronic Effects of the Complex.

 

There are two kinds to be differentiated:

1. There is a complex-action which extends over a very long period and which is often evoked by a single affect.

2. There are special chronic effects which become lasting because the affect is always in a continuous state of provocation.

The first group is best illustrated by the legend of Raymundus Lullus, who, as a gallant adventurer, was for a long time enthusiastically courting a lady. Finally the longed for billet arrived inviting him for a nocturnal rendezvous. Lullus, full of expectation, arrived at the appointed place and as he approached the lady who was there awaiting him she suddenly parted her apparel and uncovered her bosom eaten away with cancer. This event made such an impression on Lullus that henceforth he devoted his life to pious asceticism.

There are impressions which last a lifetime. Indeed the lasting effects of strong religious impressions or shocking incidents are well known. The effects in youth are particularly strong. Education, to be sure, is based on this; that is, to impart lasting complexes to the child. The durability of the complex is guaranteed by a constantly active feeling-tone. If the feeling-tone becomes extinguished the complex, too, becomes extinguished. The persistent existence of a complex with feeling-tone has naturally the same constellating effect on the other psychical activities as an acute affect. Whatever suits the complex is taken up, everything else is excluded or at least inhibited. The best examples can be found in religious convictions. There is no argument, no matter how threadbare, that is not advanced if it is pro, on the other hand the strongest and most plausible arguments contra do not thrive; they simply glide by, because emotional inhibitions are more powerful than all logic. Even among people of intelligence who have great education and experience at their command, one sometimes observes a real blindness, a true systematic anæsthesia when an attempt is made to convince them of the doctrine of determinism. How often we notice that an old unpleasant impression will, in many people, produce an imperturbable false judgment that no logic, no matter how clear, can dislodge!

The effects of the complex extend not only over thought but also over action, forcing it continually in a very definite direction. How many people thoughtlessly practice religious rites and many other possible baseless actions, though intellectually they long since are above it all!

The second group of chronic complex-effects in which the feeling-tone is constantly sustained by actual stimuli, offer the best examples of complex constellations. The strongest and most persistent effects are especially seen in the sexual complexes where the feeling-tone is constantly maintained by unsatisfied sexual desire. A glance through the "History of the Saints," or, e. g., Zola's "Lourdes," or "Rêve," will show numerous examples. Nevertheless the constellations are not always of a totally coarse and sensuous nature, often they are finer influences, marked by symbolisms acting on thought and action. I refer to the numerous and instructive examples offered by Freud. Freud presents the conception of "symptom-action" as a special act of the constellation. (One should really speak of "symptom-thought" and "symptom-action.") In his "Psychopathologie des Alltagslebens" Freud shows that apparently fortuitous disturbances of our actions, such as lapses in talking and reading, forgetting, etc., are due to the infringement of constellated complexes. In his "Traumdeutung" he points out a similar influence in our dreams. In our experimental work we have proven that complexes disturb association experiments in a characteristic and regular manner. (Peculiar forms of reactions, perseveration, retardation or loss of reaction, subsequent forgetting of critical or post-critical reactions,^[8] etc.) These observations give us valuable indices for the complex-theory. In selecting my stimulus words I took care to employ as far as possible words in colloquial use, principally to avoid difficulties of understanding by the subject. It would be expected that an educated subject would react easily, but indeed this is not the case. At the very simplest words there appear obstructions and other disturbances which can be explained only by the fact that the stimulus word has excited a complex. But why should it be difficult to reproduce easily an idea which is closely connected to a complex? The emotional inhibition must be cited as the main hindering cause. The complexes exist mostly in a state of repression. As a rule one deals with most intimate secrets which are anxiously guarded and which one either does not wish to expose or is unable to do so. The repression may even under normal conditions be so strong that there exists a hysterical amnesia for the complex; that is, there is a feeling of an emerging idea, of a significant connection, but the reproduction is held back by vague hesitation. There is a feeling as though one wished to say something which immediately slipped away. That which slipped away is the complex-thought. Occasionally there appears a reaction which unconsciously contains the complex thought but the test person is blind to it, and it is only the experimenter who can lead him on in the right way. The repressing resistance may also show afterward a striking effect in the reproduction test. Amnesia influences by preference the critical and post-critical reactions. These facts show that the complex has a certain exceptional position in relation to the more indifferent psychic material. Indifferent reactions follow "smoothly" and generally have very short reaction times. They are always at hand for the ego-complex to dispose of at pleasure. It is different with the complex reactions! They appear only with opposition, and often when about to appear they again withdraw from the ego-complex. They are peculiarly formed; often they are the products of embarrassment, of which the ego-complex itself is unaware, often they merge into amnesia in contradistinction to the indifferent reactions which frequently possess great stability and are reproducible even after months and years. We see, then, that the complex-associations are much less at the disposal of the ego-complex than the indifferent ones. From this it must be concluded that the complex takes a relatively independent position to the ego-complex, it is like a vassal who does not bow implicitly to the domination of the ego-complex. Experience also teaches that the stronger the feeling-tone of a complex, the stronger and more frequent will be the disturbances of the experiment. A person dominated by a complex of strong feeling is less able to react "smoothly," not only to association experiments but to all stimuli of daily life, for the uncontrollable influences of the complexes constantly exert hindrances and disturbances. His self-control (the control of his frame of mind, thought, words and actions) suffers in proportion to the strength of the complex. The purposefulness of his actions is more and more replaced by unintentional lapses, errors, and unaccountabilities for which he himself often can give no reason. A person with a strong complex shows, therefore, intensive disturbances during association experiments, for a great number of apparently innocent word stimuli excite the complex. The following two examples elucidate the aforesaid:

Case 1. The stimulus word "white" has numerous intimate connections. The subject, however, could only hesitatingly react with "black." By way of explanation I obtained another series of reactions to "white." "The snow is white, so is the sheet covering the face of a dead person." The subject had recently lost a beloved relative. The intimate contrast "black" shows symbolically perhaps the same thing, that is, mourning.

Case 2. "Paint" excites hesitatingly the reaction "landscapes." This peculiar reaction is explained by the following successive fancies. "One can paint landscapes, portraits and faces—as well as cheeks if one has wrinkles." The subject, an old maid who sorrows over the departure of an admirer, bestows a loving attention on her body (symbolic action), thinking that by painting she will become more attractive. She adds, "One paints the face when one takes part in a theatrical performance. I took part once." It is to be noted that she took part in a theatrical performance when she was still in possession of her lover.

The associations of persons with strong complexes swarm with such examples. But the association experiment is only one side of the daily psychological life. The complex-sensitiveness can also be shown in all other psychic reactions.

Case 1. A young lady cannot bear to see the dust beaten out of her mantle. This peculiar reaction is based on the fact that she is somewhat masochistic. As a child her father frequently chastised her by spanking her a posteriori, which eventually caused sexual excitement. For this reason, to whatever even remotely resembles this form of chastisement, she is forced to react with marked rage, which rapidly changes into sexual excitement and masturbation. On saying to her once on a quite indifferent occasion, "You must obey," she went into a condition of strong sexual excitement.

Case 2. Mr. Y. falls in love with a lady who soon afterwards marries Mr. X. In spite of the fact that Mr. Y. knew Mr. X. for a long time and even had business transactions with him, he again and again forgot his name, so that on a number of occasions, when wishing to correspond with X., he was obliged to ask other people for his name.

Case 3. A young hysterical woman was suddenly assaulted by her lover during which she was especially frightened by the erected member of the seducer. She was after the incident afflicted with a stiff arm.

Case 4. A young lady while frankly relating a dream, without any apparent reason suddenly hid her face under a curtain. This striking reaction of shame was explained by the analysis of the dream which revealed a sexual wish.^[9]

Case 5. Many persons commit peculiar complicated acts which at the basis mean nothing but complex-symbols. I know a young lady who when promenading wished to take along a baby carriage. The reason for this, as she blushingly admitted, was because she desired to be looked upon as married. Elderly unmarried women are wont to use dogs and cats as complex-symbols.

As the aforesaid examples show, thought and action, both in general and particular, are constantly disturbed and peculiarly distorted by a strong complex. The ego-complex is, so to say, no longer the whole personality, as alongside of it there exists another being, living in its own way and therefore inhibiting and disturbing the development and progress of the ego-complex, for the symptom-actions very frequently take up time and exertion which are thus lost to the ego-complex. We can readily imagine how the psyche is influenced when the complex increases in intensity. The most lucid examples are always furnished by the sexual complexes. Let us take as an instance the classical state of being in love. The lover is possessed by his complex. All his interests hang only on this complex and the things belonging to it. Every word, every object recalls to him his sweetheart (experimentally even apparently indifferent word stimuli excite the complex). The most insignificant objects are guarded like priceless jewels, corresponding to their value in the complex. The whole environment is considered sub specie amoris. Whatever does not suit the complex glides by; all other interests sink to nothing, hence there results a standstill and a temporary reduction of the personality. Only that which suits the complex excites affects and is psychically elaborated. All thought and action move in the direction of the complex. Whatever is not impressed into this direction, is repudiated, or is accomplished with superficiality, unemotionally, and without any care. In attending to indifferent affairs there will appear the most peculiar compromise-productions; in business letters, lapses referring to the love-complex slip in, and in conversation one finds suspicious mistakes. The flow of objective thought is constantly interrupted by the incursions of the complex. Many pauses of thought result which are filled in by episodes of the complex. This well-known paradigm shows clearly the influence of a strong complex on the normal psyche. We see how all psychic energy is entirely bestowed on the complex at the expense of all the other psychic material which in consequence remains unused. All the other stimuli which do not suit the complex undergo a partial apperceptive dementia and emotional reduction. Even emotional tone becomes inadequate. Insignificant things, like little ribbons, dried flowers, pictures, billets-doux, hair, etc., are treated with the greatest care, while vital questions are often treated laughingly or indifferently. On the other hand the slightest remark touching the complex even remotely, immediately excites violent anger and painful outbreaks which may assume disproportionate dimensions. (In a case of dementia præcox we may note that when asked whether he is married, the patient falls into inadequate laughter or he begins to cry and becomes completely negativistic, or he shows an obstruction, etc.) Had we not the means to look into the mind of a normal lover we would have to consider his behavior that of a hysteric or catatonic. In hysteria where the complex-sensitiveness reaches a higher grade than in the normal, we lack almost all means of penetrating the mind and are obliged to laboriously habituate ourselves to enter into the feelings of hysterical affects. We totally forego this in catatonia, perhaps because we do not as yet know enough about hysteria.

The psychological state of being in love can be designated as a possession-complex. Besides this special form of sexual complex which for didactic reasons I have chosen as a paradigm for the complex of possession (it is the most common and best known form), there are naturally many other kinds of sexual complexes which can similarly exert a strong influence. Among women one frequently finds complexes of unreciprocated or even hopeless love. In such cases one generally notes an extremely strong complex-sensitiveness. The slightest intimations on the part of the other sex are assimilated into the complex and elaborated with a total blindness for the weightiest arguments against them. An insignificant utterance of the adored one is construed as a powerful subjective proof. The accidental interests of the one desired become similar interests to the adoring woman—a symptom-action which often rapidly vanishes if the wedding finally takes place or if the object of adoration is changed. The complex-sensitiveness manifests itself also in an unusual sensitiveness to sexual stimuli, which especially appears in the form of prudery. Those possessed of the complex at an early age ostentatiously avoid everything that may call up sexuality—the familiar "innocence" of grown-up daughters. They know indeed everything, where it lies and what it signifies, but there whole behavior is as if they never had the slightest notion of things sexual. If the subject must be broached for medical purposes one at first believes that he is on virgin soil, but he soon finds that all the necessary knowledge implicitly exists, only the patient does not know where she got it from.^[10] A psychoanalysis usually finds that behind numerous resistances there is hidden a complete repertoire of fine observations and subtle deductions. In a somewhat more advanced age prudery often becomes unbearable, or there appears a naïve symptomatic interest for all kinds of society news in which "one ought to take an interest because one is of an age when …, etc." The objects of those symptomatic interests are brides, pregnancies, births, scandals, etc. The cleverness of elderly ladies for the last is proverbial. These interests pass then under the flag of the "objective, purely human, interests." Here we simply have a transference; the complex must under all circumstances assert itself. As the sexual complex cannot in many cases assert itself in a normal manner, it makes use of by-ways. During the age of puberty they exist in the form of more or less abnormal fancies, frequently alternating with religious ecstatic phases (transferences). In men, sexuality (if not directly lived through) is frequently changed to a feverish professional activity or to some eccentricity, such as dangerous sports, etc., or to peculiar academic passions, such as a collecting mania. Women take up some altruistic activity which is usually determined by the special form of the complex. (They devote themselves to nursing in hospitals where there are young assistant physicians, etc.) Or there may be strange eccentricities, affectations, "putting on airs" which shall express distinction and proud resignation. The artistic predispositions are especially wont to gain by such transferences.^[11] One very frequent manner of transference is hiding the complex by means of a contrasting frame of mind. This manifestation is frequently seen in those who are constantly endeavoring to banish a chronically irritating sorrow. Among these one generally finds the best wags, the finest humorists whose jokes however are spiced with a grain of bitterness. Others hide their pain under a forced and convulsive cheerfulness, which, on account of its boisterousness and artificiality (lack of emotion) allows of no ease in society. Women betray themselves by an unbridled aggressive gayety, the men by sudden disproportionate alcoholic and other excesses (also fugues!). These transferences and simulations may, as is known, produce real double personalities, which have long excited the interest of writers with a psychological trend (see Goethe's "Zwei-Seelen-Problem," and among the modern writers Herman Bahr, Gorki, et al.). "Double personality" is not a mere literary term, it is a fact in natural science of general interest to psychology and psychiatry, especially when it manifests itself in the form of double consciousness or dissociation of personality. The dissociated complexes are always differentiated by peculiarities of mood and character, as I have shown in a case of the kind.^[12]

It happens not seldom that the transference gradually becomes stable and at least superficially replaces the original character. Every one knows people who when judged by their exterior are considered very gay and entertaining. Inwardly, or under circumstances seen in private life, they are sullen grumblers nurturing an open wound. Frequently the true nature suddenly breaks through the artificial investment, the assumed blithesomeness suddenly disappears and we are then confronted with a new person. A single word, a gesture, striking this wound, shows the complex lurking within the soul. Such imponderabilities of human emotional life must be borne in mind when we enter with our coarse experimental methods into the complicated mind of the diseased. In association experiments with patients who suffer from marked complex-sensitiveness (as in hysteria and dementia præcox) we find exaggeration of these normal mechanisms; hence their description and discussion will require more than a mere psychological aperçu.

1. For feeling, mood, affect, and emotion, Bleuler proposes the expression "affectivity," which not only designates the affects in the proper sense but also the light feelings or feeling tones of pleasure and pain in every possible occurrence. Affektivität, Suggestibilität, Paranoia. Halle: Marhold. 1906. p. 6.
2. Bleuler says (l. c., p. 17): "In all our actions and omissions affectivity is a much greater motive element than reflection. It is likely that we act only under the influence of pleasure and pain, and it is chiefly due to the affects connected with them that logical reflections obtain their force. Affectivity is the broader conception of which volition and effort represent but one side."

   André Godfernaux says: "The affective state is the dominating force, the ideas are nothing but its subjects. The logic of reasoning is only the apparent cause for the wheeling about of thought. Below the cold and rational laws of association of ideas there are others which conform more to the deep necessities of existence. It is the logic of sentiment." Le sentiment et la pensée et leurs principaux aspects physiologiques. Paris, Alcan, 1894.

3. Compare Bleuler, l. c., p. 5. "Just as we are able to distinguish in every sensation of light, even in the very simplest one, between quality, intensity, and saturation, so we may speak of processes of cognition, of feeling, of will, though we are well aware that no psychic process exists to which all three qualities are not common, even if it is now one, now the other that is in the foreground."

   Bleuler therefore divides the "psychic forms" into preponderantly intellectual, preponderantly effective, and preponderantly voluntary.

4. This can be directly compared to Wagnerian music. The leitmotif designates (in a measure like the feeling tone) an important complex presentation of the dramatic construction (such as Walhalla, Vertrag, etc.). Whenever an action or speech incites this or that complex, the leitmotif appertaining to it immediately resounds in some variation. It is exactly the same in ordinary psychological life. The leitmotif is the emotional tone of our complexes; our actions and moods are nothing but variations of our leitmotif.
5. The individual presentations are connected among themselves according to the different laws of associations (similarity, coexistence, etc.). But the higher connections are grouped and selected by an affect.
6. Bleuler: Affektivität, etc., p. 31, says: "Attention is nothing more than a special form of affectivity" (p. 30). "The attention just like all our actions is always directed by an affect," or better expressed, "Attention is a side of affectivity which does nothing but that which is already known of it, that is, it smooths the way for certain associations and inhibits others."
7. The modification of the ego-complex resulting from the setting in of a markedly accentuated complex I designate as the "affect ego." This modification will, as a rule in painful affects, consist of restriction and recession of many parts of the normal ego. Many other wishes, interests, and affects have to give way to the new complex, insofar as they oppose it. The ego in the affect is reduced to its lowest, as can be seen in such scenes as theater fires and shipwrecks, where in a trice all culture disappears, being replaced by the crudest lack of consideration.
8. Compare Jung: Experimentelle Beobachtungen über das Erinnerungsvermögen. Zentr.-Bl. f. Nervenheilk. u. Psychiatrie, 1905. Freud, too, says the following (Traumdeutung, 1900, p. 301): "If the report of a dream appears to me at first difficult to understand, I request the dreamer to repeat it. This he rarely does with the same words. The passages wherein the expressions are changed I recognise as the weak points of the dream's disguise. The narrator is admonished by my request that I mean to take special pains to solve the dream and immediately under the impulse of resistance protects the weak points of the dream's disguise, by replacing the treacherous expressions by remoter ones."
9. For further examples of symbolic actions see Beitrag. VI ff. of the Diagnost. Assoz.-Stud.
10. Freud expresses himself in a similar manner. Compare also the case in Beitrag VIII, Diagnost. Assoz.-Stud.
11. Freud calls this transference "sublimation": Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie. Deuticke, Leipzig und Wien, 1905, p. 76.
12. Jung: Zur Psychologie und Pathologie sogenannter okkulter Phänomene. Leipzig, 1902.

    Comp. also Paulhan: La simulation dans le caractère.