The Psychology of Dementia Præcox/Chapter III

by Carl Gustav Jung

 

CHAPTER III.

The Influence of the Emotional Complex on Association.

How the complex manifests itself in association experiments we have discussed a number of times, and the reader is therefore referred to our earlier publications. We must, however, return to one point which is of theoretical value. We frequently meet with complex reactions which are built up in the following manner:

1.	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	to kiss	—to love	3.0″
		burn	—ing	1.8″
2.	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	to despise	—someone	5.2″
		tooth	—teeth	2.4″
3.	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	friendly	—amiable	4.8″
		dish	—fish	1.6″

The first reaction of the three examples contains the complex (in 1 and 3 we deal with erotic references and in 2 with an injury). The second group of reactions shows a perseverating feeling-tone from the preceding reactions, as can be readily seen by their slightly prolonged reaction time and their superficiality. As explained in the first contribution of the "Diagnost. Assoz.-Stud.," associations like tooth—teeth belong to the motor-speech combinations, burn—ing to word completion and dish—fish to rhyme combinations. When attention is distracted, there is an increase in motor-speech combinations and in sound reactions, as was positively shown from the results obtained in distraction experiments. Whenever there is a diminution of attention there is an increase in the superficial associations and their value diminishes. Therefore, if during an association experiment without any artificial distraction there suddenly appear striking superficial associations, one is justified in supposing that a momentary diminution of attention has taken place. The cause of this is to be sought in an internal distraction. According to instructions the subject is supposed to fix his attention on the experiment, if his attention decreases, that is, if without any external reason the attention is turned away from the meaning of the stimulus word there must be an internal cause for this distractibility. We find this mostly in the antecedent or in the same reaction. There appears a strongly emotional idea, a complex, which on account of its strong feeling tone, assumes great distinction in consciousness, or when repressed sends an inhibition into consciousness, and in this way either suspends for a short time the effect of the directing idea (attention to the stimulus word) or simply diminishes it. The correctness of this supposition can usually be proven without any difficulty by analysis.^[1] The phenomenon described is therefore of practical value as a complex-indicator. Of theoretical value is the fact that the complex need not be conscious for the subject. From the repression it can send an inhibition into consciousness, thus disturbing the attention; in other words, it can check the intellectual functioning of consciousness (prolongation of reaction time), or can make it impossible (errors), or can diminish its value (sound associations). The association experiments merely show us the details, whereas clinical and psychological observation show us the same phenomena in gross outlines. A strong complex, such as a tormenting grief, hinders concentration; we are unable to tear ourselves away from the grief and direct our activity and interests into other channels. When we make an attempt to do this, "to drown our sorrow," we succeed perhaps for a short time, but we are able to do it only "half-heartedly." Without our knowing it at the time, the complex prevents us from giving ourselves up entirely to our tasks. We undergo all possible inhibitions, during pauses of thought (deprivation of thought in dementia præcox) there appear fragments of complexes, which just as in association experiments, produce characteristic disturbances in intellectual functioning. We make mistakes in writing according to the rules of Meringer and Mayer,^[2] we produce condensations, perseverations, anticipations, etc., and especially Freud's errors, which last reveal by their content the determining complex. Our lapses in talking are at critical points, that is, the words we say have a complex significance. We make mistakes in reading because we think that we see in the text words of the complex. Frequently the complex words appear in the peripheral field of vision^[3] (Bleuler). In the midst of our diversions we are surprised to hear ourselves sing or whistle a certain melody, the text of which can only seldom and with effort be found, and is a complex constellation; or we continue to murmur a word, frequently a technical term, or any foreign word, which also refers to the complex. Sometimes we may be dominated by an obsession, a melody or word continually thrusting itself into our mind. Here, too, are complex constellations.^[4] Or we may draw lines on paper or on the table, complex signs which are frequently not difficult to decipher. Wherever the complex disturbances refer to words we find displacements by sound-similarity or phraseological combinations. I refer here mainly to Freud's examples.^[5]

I mention the following from my own observations: To the stimulus word "lawn" a gentleman reacts with the peculiar association "broker." The analysis readily shows that he was contemplating some transactions with a loan office—"pawn-broker."^[6] The word-automatism, "Bunau-Varilla,"^[7] by free associations gave the following series: "Varinas-Manila—Zigarillo—Havana cigar." It was because I forgot my matches that I resolved not to throw away the butt of my cigar, so as to light another good cigar with it. The word "Bunau-Varilla" appeared just at the moment when I was about to throw it away. A boy who won a prize for passing a brilliant examination in arithmetic continues to chant for hours the word "rithmication."^[8] These examples serve to illustrate that which Freud treats conclusively in his "Traumdeutung," namely, that repressed thoughts disguise themselves in similarities, be it in speech similarities (sound), or similarities of optical pictures. For the latter forms of displacement dreams afford the best examples.

Those who reject Freud's analysis of dreams can discover rich substitutes in melody automatisms. At a merry entertainment some one remarked that if a person marries he should marry a proud lady. A gentleman present who recently married a woman noted for her pride began to softly whistle to himself the melody of a familiar street song. I immediately asked this gentleman whom I knew well to tell me the text of this melody. I received the following answer: "What I whistled just now? Oh that's nothing, I believe I heard it often in the streets but I do not know the words." I insisted that he should recall the words which I knew well, but he was unable to do so; on the contrary he assured me that he never heard these words. The text reads as follows:

"Meine Mutter hat gesagt: Nimm dir keine Bauernmagd." ("My mother has said do not take a peasant maid.")

During an excursion, a young lady accompanied by a gentleman whose proposal she soon hoped for quietly sang the Wedding March of Lohengrin.

A young colleague who just finished his doctor's thesis had to whistle for half a day Handel's "Lo the conquering hero comes crowned with glory," etc.

An acquaintance who was happy over a new and lucrative position betrayed himself by the following melody which obsessed him: "Are we not born for glory?"

A colleague meeting a nurse during his rounds, who was supposed to be pregnant, immediately afterwards finds himself whistling: "There were once two royal children who loved each other so much."

I do not wish to increase unnecessarily this collection of melody automatisms, every person can daily make the same observation. We learn from this another method of disguise of the repressed thought. It is well known that whistling or singing is a frequent accompaniment in those occupations where the full attention is not required (Freud), the rest of the attention can therefore suffice to produce a dreamy movement of complex-thoughts. The conscious activity, however, prevents the complex from becoming clear, hence it can only show itself indistinctly, and this eventually happens in the melody automatisms which contain the thought of the complex in a general metamorphosed form. The resemblance lies in the situation or in the frame of mind; as, "Lo the conquering," etc., Bridal March, "There were once two royal children, etc.," or in the expression ("My mother has said, etc."). The complex-thought in these cases was not clear to consciousness, but manifested itself more or less symbolically. How far such symbolic constellations can go is best seen in the wonderful example of Freud in his "Psychopathologie des Alltagslebens." From the sentence "Exoriar aliquis nostris ex ossibus ultor" Freud was able to trace back to the forgotten word "aliquis" [a—liquis—liquid—fluid—blood—miracle of S. Gennario—] the thought of a much overdue period in the beloved. I shall quote a similar example from my own experience in order to corroborate Freud's mechanisms.

A gentleman wishes to recite the familiar poem ("Ein Fichtenbaum steht einsam") "A pine tree stands alone, etc." In the line "he felt drowsy" he becomes hopelessly stuck. With the words "with white sheet" he forgot everything. This forgetting in such well known verse seemed to me rather peculiar and I let him reproduce what came into his mind with the words "with white sheet." The following series resulted: "White sheet makes one think of the cloth for the dead—a linen cloth with which one covers a dead person—(pause)—now I think of a near friend—his brother died quite recently—he is supposed to have died of heart disease—he was also very corpulent—my friend is corpulent, too, and I thought it might also happen to him—probably he does not exercise enough—when I heard of this death I suddenly became frightened, it could also happen to me, as we in our family are predisposed to obesity—my grand-father also died of heart disease—I too find myself somewhat too corpulent and have therefore within the last few days begun treatment for reducing fat."

From this example it can be clearly seen how the repression draws out of consciousness symbolic similarities and chains them to the complex. This gentleman unconsciously identified himself with the pine tree which was enveloped in a white sheet.

From this fact it can also be assumed that he wished to recite this poem as a symbolic act in order to effect a discharge of his complex excitement. Another preferred realm of complex-constellation is the joke of the pun type. There are persons who possess special talent for this and among whom I know some who have very strong complexes to repress. What I mean I should like to show in a simple example which may serve as an illustration.

At a gathering there was a gentleman who made many good and bad puns. While oranges were being served he made the following pun: "O—rangierbahnhof " (shunting station). Mr. Z., who obstinately disputed the complex theory, called out: "You see, doctor, here you could again suppose that Mr. X. thinks about a journey." Mr. X. embarrassingly replied: "That is really the case; lately I thought much about travelling, but could not get away." Mr. X. thought particularly about a journey to Italy, hence the constellation through the oranges, a number of which he recently received from a friend in Italy. To be sure, at the moment of pronouncing the pun the meaning of it was totally unknown to him, for the complex constellation is, and must remain, obscure.

Dreams, too, are constructed according to the nature of the examples mentioned, that is, they are symbolic expressions of repressed complexes. In dreams we find very fine examples of symbolisms used for expression.^[9] As is known, Freud finally advanced the dream investigations on a way towards progress. Let us hope that psychology will soon take cognizance of this fact. It would profit immensely by it. As for the conception of expression by means of symbolisms in the psychology of dementia præcox, Freud's "Traumdeutung" is epoch-making. In view of the importance of symbolic expression in dementia præcox it will not appear superfluous if I add another to the dream analyses reported in Contribution No. VIII of dream analyses. A friend^[10] related to me the following dream:

"I saw how horses were hoisted by thick cables to indefinite heights. One of them, a powerful brown horse which was tied up in a belt and dispatched upward like a package, especially took my fancy. Suddenly the cable broke and the horse dropped to the street. I thought that it was surely killed when, all at once, it started up and galloped away. At the same time I noticed that the horse was dragging along the heavy trunk of a tree, and I wondered how, in spite of that, it could advance so rapidly. Evidently it became skittish and was liable to do some damage. Then a rider on a small horse came along and slowly rode towards the unruly horse which also assumed a somewhat slower gait. Nevertheless, I feared that the horse might run over this rider when a cab came along and paced in front of the rider, thus bringing the horse to a still slower gait. I then thought now all is well, the danger is over."

I then took up the individual points of the dream and asked my friend X. to repeat to me whatever came into his mind at each point. The hoisting up of the horses recalled to him the idea of hoisting horses on a sky scraper and indeed they seemed to be covered up just like horses that are lowered into mines to work. X. recently saw in a periodical the picture of a sky scraper in process of building where the work is done at a dizzy height and at the same time thought that it was hard work that he would not care for. I then attempted to analyze this strange picture of hoisting a horse into the air. X. stated that the horse was tied around by a belt just as they used to tie horses which they lowered into the mines. What particularly struck the dreamer in the picture of the periodical was the work at such a dizzy height. The horse in the mines must also work. Perhaps the expression for mines (Berg-Werk, literally translated mountain-work) gave origin to the two thoughts of the dream, "mountain" expressing height and "work" expressing labor. I therefore asked X. to concentrate his mind on the word "mountain" and tell me the associations following it. He immediately remarked that he was a passionate mountain climber and especially about the time of the dream he had a great desire to make a high ascent and also to travel. But his wife felt very uneasy about it and would not allow him to go alone. She could not accompany him, as she was pregnant. For the same reasons they were obliged to give up a journey to America, whither they had planned to go together. They then realized that as soon as one has children it becomes more difficult to move about and one cannot go everywhere. (Both are very fond of travelling and formerly travelled much.) The idea of relinquishing his trip to America was especially unpleasant to him, as he carried on commercial transactions in that country and always hoped that perhaps by a personal visit to the country he would benefit commercially. On this hope he built many vague plans for the future, rather lofty and flattering to his ambition.

Let us briefly summarize that which has been so far said. Mountain can be interpreted as height. To ascend a mountain = to get to the top. Work = labor. The underlying sense of this may be "By labor one gets to the top." The height in the dream is especially plastically produced by the "dizzy heights" of the sky scrapers which designated America, where my friend's expectations lie. The picture of the horse which is evidently associated with the idea of labor seems to be a symbolic expression for "hard labor," for the work on a sky scraper upon which the horse was hoisted is very difficult, as is also the work which is accomplished by horses lowered into mines. In colloquial language we have such expressions as "work like a horse" and "harnessed like a horse."

By disclosing these associations we gain a certain insight into the sense of the first part of the dream. We have found the way which apparently leads us to very intimate hopes and expectations in the dreamer. Let us then assume that the sense of this part of the dream signifies, "By labor one gets to the top." The dream pictures appertaining to it can easily be taken as symbolic expressions for this thought.

The first sentences of the dream read: "I saw how horses were hoisted by means of thick cables to an indefinite height. One of them, a powerful brown horse which was tied up by a belt and dispatched upward like a package, especially took my fancy." This seems to contradict the analysis which is that by labor one gets to the top. To be sure one can also be hoisted up. In this connection X. recalls how he often looked with disgust upon those tourists who had themselves hoisted up to the high summits by the "flour sack" method. He never needed anybody's help. The various horses in the dream are therefore others who were unable to get to the top by their own effort. The expression "like a package" seems also to express some contempt. But where in the dream is the dreamer himself represented? According to Freud he must be represented and indeed he is generally the chief actor. He is undoubtedly the "powerful brown horse." A powerful brown horse resembles him firstly because it can work much, then the brown color is generally described as "a healthy reddish brown color" such as mountain climbers are wont to have. The brown horse then is probably the dreamer. It is hoisted up like the others—the content of the first two sentences seem to be exhausted to the last point. The hoisting up of the dreamer is not clear, it even contradicts directly the applied sense "through work one gets to the top."

It seemed to me of special importance to find out whether my supposition that the brown horse represents the dreamer was really confirmed. For this reason I asked him to concentrate his attention on the passage "I remarked that the horse dragged along a big trunk of a tree." He immediately recalled that formerly he was nicknamed "tree" on account of his powerful stout figure. My supposition was therefore correct, the horse had even his name attached. The trunk on account of its heaviness encumbered the horse, or at least should have done so, and X. wondered that in spite of that it advanced so rapidly. To advance is synonymous with to get to the top. Therefore in spite of the burden or encumbrance X. advances and indeed so rapidly that one gets the impression that the horse is skittish and may perhaps cause some misfortune. On being questioned X. stated that the horse could have been crushed by this heavy trunk if it had fallen, or the force of this moving mass could have thrust the horse into something.

These associations exhausted the fancies of this episode. I therefore began my analysis from another point, that is, at that part where the cable broke, etc. I was struck by the expression "street." X. stated that it was the same street in which his business was where he once hoped to make his fortune. One deals here with the hope for a definite career of the future. To be sure it came to nought, and if it would have come to anything it would have been due not so much to his position or his own merits as to personal influences. Hence we get the explanation for this sentence, "The cable broke and the horse dropped down." It symbolically very properly expresses the disappointment. He did not fare like many others who get to the top without any trouble. The others who were "preferred" to him and got to the top could not begin to do anything of value for "what could a horse do up there?" They were, therefore, in a place where they could not do anything. The disappointment over his failure, was, as he stated, so great that on one occasion he was almost desparing of his future career. In his dream "he thought" that the horse was "killed" but soon he verified with satisfaction that it rose again and galloped away. He therefore could not be subdued. Here apparently commences a new part of the dream which probably corresponds to a different period of his life, if the interpretation of the preceding part be correct. I asked X. to fix his attention on the horse galloping away. He states that for a moment in his dream he saw another but very indistinct horse appearing near the brown one; this, too, dragged the trunk and started to gallop away with the brown one, but it soon became very indistinct and disappeared. As shown also by the late reproduction, this horse seems to be under a special repressing influence and hence important to the dream. X. therefore dragged the log with some one else and this person must have been his wife with whom he is harnessed "in the yoke of matrimony." Together they pull the trunk. In spite of the burden which encumbers his progress he gallops away. This again expresses the thought that he can not be subdued. The galloping horse recalls to X. Welti's painting "Eine Mondnacht" (a moonlight night) which represents galloping horses on a cornice among which one very distinct fiery horse is mounting. In the same picture there is the representation of a married couple lying in bed. The picture of the galloping horse (which at first galloped with another) leads therefore to the very suggestive painting of Welti. Here we get a very unexpected view into the sexual nuance of the dream, whereas we thought we saw only the complex of ambition and future career. The symbol of the horse which until now showed only the side of the hardworking domestic animal now assumes a sexual significance which is specially confirmed by the horse scene on the cornice. There the horse is the symbol of the passionate impulsive desire which without any further discussion can be identified with the sexual desire. As shown by the above-mentioned recollections, the dreamer feared that the horse would fall or that the force of the moving trunk might thrust it into something. This vis a tergo can readily be perceived as X.'s own impetuous temperament which he feared might sometimes force him into many thoughtless acts.

The dream continues: Then a rider on a small horse came along and slowly rode toward the unruly horse which also assumed a somewhat slower gait. His sexual impetuosity is bridled. X. states that the rider by his dress and from his general appearance resembled his superior. This fits the first interpretation of the dream. His superior moderates the rash pace of the horse; in other words, he hinders the too rapid advancement of the dreamer because he is his superior. Now we have to search for the further development of the sexual thought. Perhaps there is something behind this peculiar expression, "a little horse." X. states that the horse was little and pretty like a child's toy and recalls to him an incident of his youth. While still a boy he noticed a woman far advanced in pregnancy, wearing hoops. It was then the style. This appeared to him very comical and he asked his mother whether this woman wore a horse under her dress. (He thought of horses worn at carnivals or circuses which are buckled to the body.) Since then, whenever he saw a woman in a pregnant state, it recalled to him this childish hypothesis. His wife, as we mentioned above, is pregnant. Pregnancy was also mentioned above as a hindrance to travelling. Here it bridled the impetuosity which we were obliged to designate as sexual. This part of the dream apparently means that pregnancy of the wife imposes restraints on the husband. Here we have a very clear thought which is evidently intensely repressed and extraordinarily well hidden in the meshes of the dream. It is composed entirely of symbols of the upward striving conduct. Pregnancy, however, does not seem to be the only reason for the restraint, for the dreamer feared "that the horses may in spite of all overrun the rider." But then we have the slowly advancing cab which moderated still more the gait of the horse. On asking X. who was in the cab, he recalled that there were children. The children therefore were apparently subjected to some repression, as the dreamer recalled them only on being questioned. In the vulgar expression known to my friend it was "a whole car full of children." The wagon with the children inhibits his impetuosity. The sense of the dream is now perfectly clear. It reads as follows:

The pregnancy of the wife and the problem of too many children restrained the husband. This dream fulfills a wish as it presents the self-restraint as accomplished. At first sight the dream, just as all others, seems senseless, but when its first stratum is uncovered it already shows distinctly the aspirations and the disappointments of an upward struggling career. Inwardly, however, it hides a most personal question which must be accompanied by many painful feelings.

In the analysis and treatment of this dream, I omitted to refer to the numerous recurring analogous combinations, the similarity of pictures, and allegorical representations of phrases, etc. A careful examination of the reported observations shows that they contain the characteristic features of mythological thinking. I only wish to point out that the ambiguity of the individual pictures of the dream (Freud's overdetermination) simply shows the obscurity and haziness of thought in dreams. The pictures of the dream belong to one as well as the other complex of the waking state, although both complexes are sharply separated in the waking state. Due to a deficiency of the discriminating ability in the dream both complexes may at least symbolically flow together.

This manifestation is perhaps not clear without further explanation, but we can readily deduct it from our former premises.^[11]

Our experiments in distraction confirm our supposition that in diminished attention, thought is rather superficially connected. The state of diminished attention expresses itself in a decrease of clearness of ideation. Whenever the ideas are not clear their differences, too, are not clear; hence our sensitiveness to differences is naturally diminished, for it is nothing but a function of attention or clearness (synonyms). Therefore there is nothing to prevent the mistaking of one idea ("psychic molecule") for another, although normally they are clearly defined. The experimental expression for this fact is the increase of mediate associations produced by the distractibility. (See Beitrag IB of the "Diagnost. Assoz.-Stud.") It is known that the mediate associations of the association experiments (especially in a condition of distraction), are generally nothing else than a displacement of an intimate connection by phrase or sound. (For example, see Beitrag I. Intr. "Diagnost. Assoz.-Stud.") On account of the distraction the psyche becomes uncertain in the choice of expression, and has to be satisfied with all sorts of errors in the speech and acoustic systems, thus resembling a paraphasic.^[12] We can readily assume the external distraction in our experiments to be replaced by a complex which displays its autonomous effect beside the activity of the ego-complex. We have discussed above the resulting association phenomena. Whenever the complex becomes excited the conscious association becomes disturbed and superficial, due to an escape of attention (or inhibition of attention) to the a parte existing complex. During the normal activity of the ego-complex the other complexes must be inhibited else the conscious function of the directed association would be impossible. We therefore see that the complex can only indirectly reveal itself by indefinite symptomatic association (symbolic actions), all of which show a more or less symbolic charicter.^[13] (See all examples mentioned above.) The effects emaniting from the complex must in the normal be weak and obscure because they are not in possession of their full attention which is taken up by the ego-complex. Therefore in the experiment on distraction the ego-complex and the autonomous complex must be directly compared to both psychic activities, just as in the experiment most of the attention is bestowed on the writing and only a fraction on the association, so in activity most of the attention lies in the ego-complex while the autonomous complex receives only a fraction of it (provided the autonomous complex is not abnormally excited). It is for this reason that the autonomous complex can think only superficially and vaguely, that is, symbolically. Its productions (automatism, constellations) which it sends into the activity of the ego-complex and into consciousness must be created in a similar manner.

We shall here give a brief analysis of the symbolic. We use the symbolic in contradistinction to the allegoric. Allegory is an intentional interpretation of a thought reinforced by emblems, while symbols are only indistinct by-associations of a thought, causing more vagueness than perspicuity. Says Pelletier:^[14] "The symbol is a very inferior form of thought. One can define the symbol as a false perception of a relation of identity or of a very great analogy between two objects which in reality present but a vague analogy." Pelletier also presupposes that for the origin of symbolic association there must be a deficiency in power of discrimination. Let us now apply these reflections to the dream.

At the onset of sleep there is the suggestive imperative, "you wish to sleep, you don't wish to be disturbed by anything."^[15] This is an absolute command for the ego-complex which subdues all associations. But the autonomous complexes as shown above are no more under the direct control of the ego-complex. They allow themselves to be pushed back quite far, and to be reduced, but not to be completely lulled to sleep. For they are like small secondary minds having their own affective roots in the body and by means of which they always remain awake. During sleep the complexes are perhaps just as inhibited as during the waking state, for the imperative call to sleep inhibits all side thoughts.^[16] Nevertheless, just as during the noises of the day and in the waking state, so they succeed from time to time in presenting to the sleeping-ego their pale, apparently senseless, by-associations. The complex thoughts themselves are unable to appear, as the inhibition of sleep-suggestion is especially directed against them. If they are able to break through the suggestion, that is, if they can come to the full possession of attention, of course sleep immediately ceases. We see this very frequently in the hypnosis of hysterics; the patients sleep a short time, then they suddenly become awakened through fright from some thought-complex. Insomnia in many cases is due to uncontrollable complexes against which the energy of the auto-suggestion of sleep can no more be effective. If, however, by proper means we reinforce the energy of such persons they are again able to sleep, because they can restrain their complexes. But restraining the complex means nothing more than the withdrawal of the attention, that is, its distinctness. Hence in their thought the complexes depend only on a small fraction of distinctness and because of deficiency of discrimination they manifest themselves in rather vague and symbolic expressions and become mingled. A real censorship of dream-thoughts in the sense of Freud we need not admit. The inhibition emanating from the sleep-suggestion perfectly suffices to explain all. In conclusion we must mention another characteristic complex-effect, that is, the inclination to contrast-association. As was fully shown by Bleuler (see Chap. I) psychic activity tending towards an aim must be accompanied by contrasts. This is absolutely necessary for proper coordination and moderation. From experience we know that every decision is accompanied by the association of contrasts. Normally we are never impeded by contrasts, they only induce reflection and are useful for our actions. But if for any reason the energy is impaired, then the individual readily becomes the victim of an opposition between positive and negative, inasmuch as the feeling-tone of the decision suffices no more to overpower and restrain the contrasts. We see this very often wherever a strong complex absorbs the energy of the individual. The energy being diminished, the attention for everything not belonging to the complex becomes superficial, and the associations lack a firm course. As a result we get on the one hand shallow associations, and on the other the contrast can no longer be suppressed. Sufficient examples can be found in hysteria where one deals entirely with contrasting emotions (see Bleuler's works) and in dementia præcox where we deal with emotional and speech contrasts (see Pelletier's work). Stransky experimentally found speech contrasts in his forced talking.

A few general remarks will be made on the manner and course of the complex by way of addition to Chapters II and III.

Every emotional event becomes a complex. If it does not meet an already existing kindred complex it is only of momentary significance, and gradually sinks with lulled emotional tone into the latent mass of memory where it remains until a kindred impression reproduces it. But if an emotional event meets an already existing complex, it reinforces it and for some time assists it in gaining the upper hand. The clearest examples of this kind are to be seen in hysteria, where apparently insignificant things may lead to strong emotional outbursts. In such cases the impression touched either directly or symbolically the rather loosely repressed complex and in this manner called forth a complex-storm, which, in view of the unimportance of the event, appears entirely disproportionate. The strongest complexes unite themselves with the strongest emotions and impulses. We must therefore not be surprised at the fact that most complexes are of an erotic-sexual nature (as are also most dreams and hysterias). Especially in women where the sexual is the center of psychic life there hardly exists a single complex not in relation to sexuality. The significance of sexual trauma for hysteria universally assumed by Freud probably rests on this circumstance. At any rate, sexuality should always be kept in mind during psychanalysis which does not, however, mean that all hysterias are exclusively traced to sexuality. Any strong complex may call forth hysterical symptoms in those predisposed, at least so it seems. I do not mention here all the other kind of complexes, as I have already attempted to sketch the most frequent kinds.^[17]

It is for the interest of the normal individual to free himself from any obsessing complex which impedes the further proper development (adaptation to environment) of his personality. Time generally takes care of that. Frequently, however, artificial aid must be invoked so as to help the individual rid himself of an obsessing complex. Transference we have learned to know as a very frequent help. One is wont to grasp at something new, especially something which strongly contrasts with the complex (masturbatic mysticism). An hysteric can be cured if one is able to produce a new complex which will obsess her.^[18] Sokolowski^[19] expresses himself in a similar manner. If one succeeds in repressing the complex, there remains for a long time a strong complex-sensitiveness, that is, there is a marked tendency to recrudescence. If the repression was produced by compromise-formation there exists a lasting inferiority, a hysteria, in which only limited adaptation to the environment is possible. If the complex remains entirely unchanged which, to be sure, is possible only when there is most serious damage to the ego-complex and its functions, we must then speak of dementia præcox.^[20] Of course, I speak here only from the psychological side and only affirm what one may find in the psyche of dementia præcox. The view expressed in the above sentence in no way excludes the idea that the inveterate persistence of the complex may be due to an internal poisoning which may perhaps have been originally liberated by the affect. This assumption seems probable because it is consonant with the fact that in most cases of dementia præcox the complex is in the foreground, while in all primary intoxications, such as alcoholic, uremic poisoning, etc., the complex plays a subordinate rôle only. Another fact which speaks for my supposition is that many cases of dementia præcox begin with striking hysteroid symptoms, and only during the course of the disease do they "degenerate," that is, only during the course of the disease do they merge into the characteristic stereotypy or senselessness. It was for this reason that the older psychiatrists spoke directly of degenerative hysterical psychoses. We may, therefore, formulate the above conceptions in the following manner:

Considered from without we see the objective signs of an affect. These signs gradually (or very rapidly) grow stronger and more distorted so that to ingenuous observation it finally becomes impossible to assume a normal psychic content and one then speaks of dementia præcox. A more perfect chemistry or anatomy of the future will perhaps sometime be able to demonstrate the objective metabolic changes belonging to it, or the toxin effects. Considered from within, which, of course, is only possible through complicated analogical conclusions, we observe that the subject can not psychologically free himself from a certain complex. Because he continually associates with this complex and allows all his actions to be constellated by it, there must result a certain reduction of personality. How far the purely psychological influence of the complex reaches in such case we are unable to say at present; we may, however, suppose that the toxin effect plays an important part in the progressive degeneration.

1. For the technic of the analysis see Diagnost. Assoz.-Stud., VI and VIII Beitrag, and Jung: Die psychologische Diagnose des Tatbestandes. Jurist.-psych. Grenzfragen, 1906.
2. Versprechen und Verlesen etc., Stuttgart, 1895.
3. The greatest distinctness lies in the point of fixation where, too, is the greatest attention, hence for the peripheral field of vision attention is diminished, and the inhibition for the unsuitable is less than in the point of fixation, therefore in this location it is easier for repressed complex-fragments to manifest themselves.
4. See examples in Beitrag IV Diagn. Assoz.-Stud. Compare also the mediate associations Beitrag I, Abschnitt B. III.
5. Psychopathologie des Alltagslebens and Traumdeutung.
6. Given by translators as play of words, in author's example can not be translated.
7. Beitrag I, Diagnost. Assoz.-Stud.
8. [Example given by translators. The example in the German text does not lend itself to translation. Ed.]
9. See examples in proof of this in Beitrag VIII, Diagnost, Assoz.-Stud.
10. I am well acquainted with the personal and family relations of this gentleman.
11. For the fusion of simultaneously existing complexes we may find some corroboration in the elementary fact not unknown in psychology (Féré in La pathologie des émotions, mentions it by way of intimation) that two stimuli simultaneously existing in two different sensory spheres, reinforce or respectively influence each other. From researches with which I am at present occupying myself, it seems to show that a voluntary motor activity is visibly influenced by a simultaneously existing automatic activity (breathing). From all that we know of complexes they are continued automatic incitements or activities. Just as they influence the conscious activity of thought so do also the complexes act upon one another formatively, so that every complex contains elements of the other, a thing which may psychologically be designated as fusion. Freud from a different point of view calls this Überdeterminierung (overdetermination).
12. Kraepelin (Über Sprachstörungen im Traume, Psychol. Arbeiten, Bd. V, H. 1) is of the opinion that the proper formation of a thought is hindered by the encroachment of a distracting by-idea. On p. 48 he expresses himself as follows: "The common feature in all these observations (Dream paraphasias) is the displacement of the basal thought by the entrance of a by-association for an essential link of the chain of presentations. The derailment of speech or of thought to a by-association is due in my opinion, to lack of distinctness in the ideas." Kraepelin further asserts that "the by-idea causing the displacement of thought was distinctly a narrower and more significant idea which suppressed the more general and more shadowy one." Kraepelin calls this symbolic manner of derailment "metaphoric paralogia" in contradistinction to the purely "displacing" and "derailing paralogia." The "by-associations" are mostly perhaps associations of similarity—at all events we deal here very frequently with such—it is therefore easily understood how the paralogia has the character of metaphor. Such metaphors may give the impression, as it were, of an intentional disfigurement of the dream-thought. In this point Kraepelin is not very far from Freud's ideas.
13. Stadelmann (Geisteskrankh. u. Naturwissensch., München, 1905) in his regretably affected manner of representation, says: "The psychotic furnishes the partially or completely deranged feeling of his ego with a symbol, but unlike the normal he does not compare this feeling with other processes or objects, but it is stretched to such an extent that the picture which he has brought in for comparison he allows to become a reality, a subjective reality which in the judgment of others is a delusion." "The genius finds the necessity of forms in his inner life which he projects outwardly, and whereas the symbolized associations in the psychotic become delusions, in the genius it only manifests itself as a somewhat exaggerated experience."
14. L'Association des Idées dans la Manie aiguë, etc. Thèse de Paris, 1903.
15. Of course this is only a figurative expression for the sleep obsession, or sleep instinct (see Claparède: Esquisse d'une théorie biologique du sommeil. Archives de Psychologie, Tome IV, p. 246). Theoretically I agree with the point of view formulated by Janet: "Par un côté le sommeil est un acte ; il demande une certaine énergie pour être décidé au moment opportun et pour être accompli correctement." Les Obsessions, I, p. 408. Like every psychic process, sleep probably has its special cell chemism (Weygandt!). In what it consists no one knows. Considered from the psychological side it seems to be an autosuggestive phenomenon (Forel and others utter similar views). Thus we understand that there are many transitions from the pure suggestive sleep to the organic sleep obsession which gives the impression of a poisoning by some metabolic toxin.
16. The instinctive sleep inhibition can be expressed psychologically as "désintérêt pour la situation présent" (Bergson, Claparède). The effect of the "désintérêt" on the association activity is the "abaissement de la tension psychologique" (Janet) which as afterwards described manifests itself in the characteristic association of dreams.
17. Arch. für Krim.-Anthropol., 1906.
18. Hysteria makes use of all sorts of detailed measures in order to protect itself against the complex, such as conversion into bodily symptoms, disassociations (splitting) of consciousness, etc.
19. St. Petersburger Medic. Wochenschr., 1895.
20. A similar? idea, which, however, is unfortunately almost choked by its weedy exuberant conception is uttered by Stadelmann, Geisteskrankh. u. Naturwissensch. München, 1905.