A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Sistine Choir

by William Smyth Rockstro

SISTINE CHOIR (Ital. Il Collegia dei Cappellani Cantori della Cappella Pontificia). A Collegiate Body, consisting of 32 Choral Chaplains, domiciled—though not in any special buildings of their own—at Rome, where, for many centuries, they have enjoyed the exclusive privilege of singing at all those solemn Services, and Ecclesiastical Functions, in which it is customary for the Supreme Pontiff to officiate in person.

The genealogy of the Papal Choir may be traced back to a period of very remote antiquity. It is said—and the tradition is worthy of credit—that a School for the education of Choristers was founded in Rome early in the 4th century, by S. Sylvester, whose Pontificate lasted from the year 314 to 335. That S. Hilarius (461–468) established one, not much more than a century later, is certain. These Institutions, after the lapse of another hundred years, were supplemented by new ones, on a larger scale. On the destruction of the Monastery of Monte Cassino, by the Lombards, in the year 580, the Benedictine Fathers fled to Rome; and, under the protection of Pope Pelagius II. (577–590), established themselves in a new home, near the Lateran Basilica, where they opened Schools for the preparation of Candidates for Holy Orders. S. Gregory the Great (590–604) took advantage of this circumstance while working out his system of reform, and turned the Seminaries to account as Schools of Singing. Under his care, they prospered exceedingly; and, in process of time, attained proportions which enabled them to supply the various Basilicas with Singers, who assembled on the Greater Festivals, and attended the Pope wherever he officiated. And thus arose the practice to which the Church was eventually indebted for the magnificent Services of the Sistine Chapel.

These early Scholæ Cantorum—sometimes called Orphanotropia, in allusion to the number of fatherless children which they sheltered—were governed by an Ecclesiastic, of high rank, called the Primicerius, who, assisted by a Secundicerius destined afterwards to succeed him in his office, exercised absolute control over the Youths and Children committed to his care. Boys were admitted into the Preparatory School (Parvisium) at a very early age; and, if of gentle birth, became, at the same time, members of the Papal Household, holding a status analogous to that of the Pages at a sæcular Court. After passing through the necessary preparation, the Choristers were permitted to take part in the most solemn Services of the Church: and, when their Voices changed, were either prepared for Holy Orders, or provided for as Cubicularii. The older members of the Scholæ were called Subdeacons: but, it is evident that the title was only an honorary one, since, though constantly taking their part in Choir, they were never permitted to sing the Epistle. By their help, Rome was so liberally supplied with Singers, that, on more than one occasion, the Pope was able to send out skilled instructors, for the purpose of encouraging the purest style of Ecclesiastical Singing in other countries:^[1] and, as we hear of no important modification of the system before the beginning of the 14th century, we are justified in believing that it fulfilled its purpose perfectly.

A great change, however, took place during the Pontificate of Clement V. (1305–1314), who, in the year 1305, transferred the Chair of S. Peter to Avignon, leaving his Primicerius and Schola Cantorum behind him, in Rome. Too much oppressed by political arid ecclesiastical troubles to devote his time to the regulation of details, Pope Clement naturally left the management of his Chapel to underlings, who suffered the Music to degenerate to a very unsatisfactory level. His successor, John XXII. (1316–1334), issued in 1323 the well-known Bull, 'Docta sanctorum,' for the purpose of restraining his Singers from corrupting the simplicity of Plain Chaunt, either by subjecting it to the laws of Measured Music, or by overloading it with ornamentation. It is doubtful whether the provisions of this Bull were fully carried out after the decease of its author, whose immediate successor, Benedict XII. (1334–1342), was too fond of splendid Ceremonial to raise any strong objection to the Music sung by the twelve Choral Chaplains who officiated in his private Chapel, on the score of its elaborateness. Indeed, the management of the Choir employed by Benedict and his successors, at Avignon, differed altogether from that of the Roman Schola, which was still carried on under the Primicerius. In Rome, the Choristers were taught on the old traditional system, almost from their infancy. At Avignon, the most welcome recruits were French and Flemish Singers, who had already earned a brilliant reputation. Now, in those days the best Singers were, for the most part, the best Composers also; and in the Low Countries the Art of Composition was rapidly advancing towards a state of perfection elsewhere unknown. It followed, therefore, that the Choir at Avignon contained some of the greatest Musicians in Europe, and was indebted to them for Faux-Bourdons, and other Polyphonic Music, scarcely ever heard at that period except in the Netherlands.

In 1377 Pope Gregory XI. (1370–1378) returned to Rome, and carried his Choir with him. The contrast between the rival Schools now became more apparent than ever: yet, by some means, they amalgamated completely. The probability is, that Gregory himself united them, forming the two Choirs into one body, which was no longer called the Schola Cantorum, nor governed by a Primicerius, but was henceforth known as the Collegio dei Cappellani Cantori, and placed under the command of an Ecclesiastic who held the appointment for life, and bore the title of Maestro della Cappella Pontificia. The precise year in which this change took place cannot be ascertained; though it is certain that the new title was borne by Angelo, Abbat of S. Maria de Rivaldis, in 1397—twenty years after the return from Avignon. After this, we hear of no other Maestro till 1464, when the appointment was conferred upon Niccola Fabri, Governor of Rome, who held it for two years. From 1469 onwards the list includes the names of fourteen Ecclesiastics, of whom all, except the last, were Bishops. The most celebrated of them was Elziario Genet, of Carpentras, 'Vescovoin partibus' (1515–1526?); called, from his birthplace, Carpentrasso. [See Lamentations.] The last of the series was Monsignor Antonio Boccapadule (1574–1586), whose relations with the reigning Pope, Sixtus V. (1585–1590), were disturbed by a misunderstanding, particulars of which will be found at pp. 640–641 of vol. ii. That the Pope was highly incensed at the spirit of insubordination shewn by his Cantori Cappellani on this occasion is well known: and it was probably on this account that, instead of appointing a successor to Monsignore Boccapadule, whom he somewhat unceremoniously deposed, he issued, Sept. 1, 1586, a Bull ('In suprema'), by virtue of which he conferred upon the College the right of electing, from among their own body, an Officer, to whom was committed the duty of governing the Choir, for three, six, or twelve months, or in perpetuity, according to the pleasure of the Electors.^[2] It was clear that the Maestri so elected must necessarily be deprived of many of the privileges enjoyed by the Ecclesiastical Dignitaries who had preceded them: but, by way of compensation they were invested with all which were not inseparable from the status of a Bishop; and these were still farther increased, by Pope Clement XIII, in the Bull 'Cum retinendi,' Aug. 31, 1762. It was ultimately arranged that the Election should take place annually, and this custom has ever since been strictly observed. The first Maestro so chosen was Giovanni Antonio Merlo, who served during the year 1587. Since his time, the Election has always been fixed for Dec. 2: and, for very many years, it has been the invariable custom to elect the principal Bass.

The Flemish Singers, having once obtained a recognised position in the Choir, soon began to exercise an irresistible influence over it, and, through it, over every other Choir in Christendom. Among the first, of whom we have any certain account, was Guglielmo Dufay, the Founder of the older Flemish School, whose name is mentioned, in the Archives of the Chapel, as early as 1380, three years only after the formal settlement of the College in Rome; whence it has been conjectured that he first sang at Avignon, and after wards accompanied Pope Gregory XI. to Italy. Dufay died in 1432, leaving many talented pupils. Among the brightest ornaments of his School, who sang in, and composed for, the Pontifical Chapel, were Egyd Flannel, surnamed 'l'Enfant,' Jean Redois, Bartholomæus Poignare, Jean de Curte, surnamed 'Mon Ami,' Jakob Ragot, and Guillaume de Malbecq. A little later, these were succeeded by Jean Gombert, Antonio Cortit, Lambert de Beanon, and, greatest of all, Josquin des Prés. In the early half of the 16th century, the names of Italian, French, and Spanish Singers, bore a more creditable proportion to those of the Netherlanders; honourable mention being made of Giov. Scribano, Pietro Perez, Costanzo Festa, Elizario Genet, surnamed Carpentrasso, Giov. Bonnevin, and Bern. Salinas. Later still, we hear of Bart. Scobedo, Jacques Archadelt, Cristofano Morales, Leonardo Barrè, and Domenico Maria Ferrabosco: while, in 1555, the list was crowned by the honoured name of Palestrina, who was admitted, by command of Julius III, on January 13, but dismissed before the end of the year, by Paul IV, in accordance with the regulation which forbade the reception of a married man into the College.

The number of Singers, which, at Avignon, had been limited to twelve, was, by this time, increased to twenty-four, and, not very long afterwards, raised to thirty-two, which figure still represents the normal strength of the Choir, though the assistance of additional ripieni is sometimes permitted, on extraordinary occasions. After the formal admission of the Netherlanders, the Compositions sung in the Papal Chapel were almost entirely supplied by the Cappellani Cantori themselves. The custom was, when any member of the College had produced a Mass, or other great work, to have it roughly written out, and rehearsed by the entire body of Singers, who afterwards decided whether or not it was worthy of their acceptance. If the votes were in its favour, the original autograph was placed in the hands of the Scrittori—of whom four were usually kept in full employment—and by them copied, in stencilled notes large enough to be read by the entire Choir at once, into huge Part-Books,^[3] formed of entire sheets of parchment, of which a large collection, richly illuminated and magnificently bound, is still preserved among the Archives of the Sistine Chapel,^[4] though a vast number were destroyed in the conflagration which ensued on the invasion of Rome by Charles V. in 1527. [See Part-Books, App.].

In the year 1565, Pope Pius IV. conferred upon Palestrina the title of Composer to the Pontifical Chapel, with an honorarium of three scudi and thirty baiocchi per month. The Office was renewed, after Palestrina's death, in favour of Felice Anerio, but was never conferred on any other member of the College. The most famous Musicians who sang in the Choir, after the expulsion of Palestrina in 1555, were Giov. Maria Nanini, admitted in 1577, Luca Marenzio (1594), Ruggiero Giovanelli (1599), and Gregorio Allegri (1629–1652). Adami also mentions Vittoria, whose name, however, is not to be found in any official register. Among more modern Maestri, the three most notable were, Tomaso Bai, who held the Office of Maestro in 1714; the Cavaliere Giuseppe Santarelli—Dr. Burney's friend—who entered the Choir as an artificial Soprano Singer in 1749, and died in 1790; and the Abbate Baini, who was received into the College in 1795, became Maestro in 1817, and died in 1844. By special favour of Pope Gregory XVI, Baini retained his Office for life—an honour to which, as the greatest Ecclesiastical Musician of the present century, he was most justly entitled: but, no later Maestro has enjoyed the same privilege. The present Director, Signor Mustafa, formerly a 'Cantore Corale, con beneficio,' at the Cathedral of Agnani, bears only the modest title of 'Direttore dei Concertini.'

The two settings of the 'Miserere' by Bai and Baini, which, for many years past, have been used alternately with that of Allegri, are the only works added to the répertoire of the Chapel since the death of the last-named Maestro. Indeed, neither the constitution, nor the habits, of the College, have, since Palestrina, undergone any important change—except, perhaps, in one particular, to be mentioned presently: and hence it is that its performances are so infinitely valuable, as traditional indices of the style of singing cultivated at the period which produced the 'Missa Papæ Marcelli,' the 'Improperia,' and the 'Lamentations.' Except for these traditions, the works of Palestrina would be to us a dead letter: under their safe guidance, we feel no more doubt as to the Tempi of the 'Missa brevis' than we do concerning those of the 'Sinfonia Eroica.'

The one point in which a change has taken place is, the selection of Voices: and it is necessary to remark, that, as the change did not take place until seven years after Palestrina's death, the idea that we cannot sing his Music, in England, as he intended it to be sung, for lack of the necessary Voices, is altogether untenable. In early times, as we have already seen, the Chapel was supplied with Soprani, and in all probability with Contralti also, by means of the Orphanotropia, or Scholæ Cantorum, exactly as English Cathedrals are now supplied by means of the Choristers' Schools. That this plan was continued until quite late in the 16th century is sufficiently proved by the fact that, between 1561 and 1571, Palestrina held the joint Offices of Maestro di Cappella and Maestro dei Fanciulli di Coro at the Church of S. Maria Maggiore, while, between 1539 and 1553 the post of Maestro de' Putti, at the Cappella Giulia, was successively filled by Archadelt, Rubino, Basso, Ferrabosco, and Roselli. During the latter half of the 16th century, however, these youthful Treble Voices were gradually supplanted by a new kind of adult male Soprano, called the Soprano falsetto, imported, in the first instance, from Spain, in which country it was extensively cultivated, by means of some peculiar system of training, the secret of which has never publicly transpired.^[5] At the close of the 16th century, Spanish Soprani were in very great request; and were, indeed, preferred to all others, until the year 1601, when a far more momentous change was introduced.

During nearly the whole of the 17th and the greater part of the 18th centuries, the Theatres of Europe were supplied with adult male Soprano and Contralto Voices, preserved by a process so barbarous, that at one time it was forbidden, in Italy, on pain of death. Yet, notwithstanding this penalty, and its inherent wickedness, the system prospered, and enriched the Stage with many of its most accomplished ornaments, such as Nicolini Grimaldi, Senesino, Carestini, Pacchierotti, Farinelli, and others. It has been said that Farinelli's wonderful Soprano Voice was accidentally preserved: and the story is probably true; for it is certain that very fine Voices are sometimes preserved by accident, and quite reasonable to suppose that such accidents may very frequently happen, though, should the sufferers possess no musical talent, one is not likely to hear of them. In these purely accidental cases, no Singer, with a good Voice, has ever been refused admission into the Pontifical Choir: but the transgression of the Law, which was formerly punishable with death, now renders the offender de facto excommunicate, and therefore effectually prevents his reception into the Collegio. One of the most learned and accomplished Musicians in Rome, now in command of one of its most celebrated Choirs, remembers the admission of three artificial Voices, accidentally produced, while he was studying under Baini. Two of them proved too weak to be used, except as ripieni; but the third developed into a magnificent Soprano.

The first Soprano Singer of this kind permitted to sing in the Sistine Chapel, was a Priest named Girolamo Rosini, a member of the Congregation of S. Philip Neri, who was received into the College in 1601, and died in 1644. Since his time, such Voices have always been found in the Choir: and such a Voice is now actually possessed, by its present head, Signer Mustafa. But, the trained Soprano falsetto, which needs no accident to produce it, is not yet extinct.^[6]

Italian Choir-Masters draw a careful distinction between the different Voices they employ. The Voce bianca or naturale, is by no means uncommon, but produces only Contralto Singers. The true adult Soprano, arte fatta (made by method^[7]), is an excessively rare Voice, produced 'rather in the head than in the chest or throat,' and lasting, generally, to extreme old age, to the astonishment of the uninitiated hearer, who cannot understand its co-existence with a long white beard.^[8] The distinguished Musician on whose authority we make these statements, had, quite lately, three such Soprani in his Choir. One of them died, a short time ago, at the age of 74, singing to the last. The other two are still singing Treble, at 70 years of age. There is also, at the Church of S. Giovanni Laterano, a Youth of 17 or 18, whose Voice is said to be the most heavenly Soprano imaginable; and our informant expresses his full belief that he will succeed in preserving it through life. The occurrence of such phenomena is, however, so exceptional, that the late Pope, Pius IX, founded the Scuola di S. Salvatore, near S. Peter's, for the express purpose of supplying the Choirs of Rome with Boys, subject, as in England, to be discharged on the breaking of their Voices.^[9] [See Mutation.]

It remains only to say a few words concerning the style of Singing practised by this matchless Choir, and the lessons to be learned from it.

For the last three centuries at least—quite certainly ever since the production of the 'Missa Papæ Marcelli'—the one great aim of the Maestri has been, to bring the Music into the most intimate possible connection with the Service of which it forms part. One of the most important duties of the elected head of the Choir is to stand at the Grille, and carefully watch the Altar, in order that he may make signs to the Conductor, as often as it becomes desirable for him to retard or accelerate the Tempo, to introduce a forte, or to calm down the tone to pianissimo. At certain points in the Gloria and Credo, when the Celebrant takes off his Berretta, and bows his head, a pianissimo is always introduced. [See Mass.] When the Celebrant proceeds from the Sedilia to the Altar, the Tempo of the last Amen is so arranged that it may terminate exactly at the required moment. The Conductor beats time with a roll of Music called the ^[10]Solfa; and almost always with a simple up and down motion, two beats being accorded to each Semibreve in Common Time, and one only, when there are three Semibrevea in the Measure. As the Music is not divided into Bars, this method, which has been in use from time immemorial, answers its purpose perfectly. There are, also, certain traditional ornaments, and forms of expression, which are profound mysteries to the uninitiated. For instance, the Second and Third Lamentations, on the three last days in Holy Week, are sung, as is generally supposed, by a high Voice: but, when that Voice is too-weak for the task, it is assisted by another, which, even in the most difficult Abbellimenti keeps so exactly with it, that the two Voices are invariably mistaken for one. Again, there has long been a traditional way of making crescendi and diminuendi, which has astonished even the most experienced Choir Masters. The secret of this wonderful effect is, that, not only the amount of tone produced by each individual Voice, but the actual number of Voices employed, is gradually increased in the one case, and diminished in the other. The marvellous effects produced by the 'Miserere' have already been described, at pp. 335–338 of vol. ii.;^[11] and those associated with the 'Improperia,' at pp. 1–2. Such effects would no doubt be condemned by English Choir-Masters as 'tricks'—but they are not tricks. No means can be so condemned, with justice, provided the effect they produce be artistic and legitimate. If a Pianoforte passage can be better played by crossing the hands than by holding them in the usual position, the performer who refuses to cross his hands, because he finds no directions to that effect in the book, is a tasteless pedant. There is no pedantry connected with the effects produced by the Sistine Choir. When its members conceive a really artistic effect, they produce it, in the best way they can; and we have no right to speak evil of expedients used for so legitimate a purpose. No doubt the Frescoes on the roof and walls of the Chapel, the Vestments of the Pope and Cardinals, and the general magnificence of the Ceremonial all tend to impress the listener: but, the great secret of the effect produced by the Music is, that it is always in agreement with the Ceremonial—always the right thing in the right place.

At the present moment, the Pontifical Choir is under a cloud. It sang, for the last time, in its official capacity, at the Church of S. Maria del Popolo, on Sept. 8, 1870. On the 20th of the same month the Sardinian troops entered Rome, and all things came to an end. The Pope continued the customary honorarium to his Cappellani, but, as a Choir, they were disbanded; and Signer Mustafa now lives at his birthplace, Spoleto, only coming to Rome on the few rare days when the Choir still sing together, namely (1) when the Pope holds a Consistory, with all the old Ceremonies, which are still carefully observed, as of old, in the Sistine Chapel, though in such strict privacy that the Rite is witnessed only by those who take part in it; and (2), at a public Service held, annually, on the Anniversary of the Pope's Consecration, at the Church of S. Pietro in Vincoli. One of the most able and experienced Directors of Choral Music in Europe,^[12] who was fortunate enough to be present at this last-named Service, in 1878, concludes a letter, in which he has kindly furnished us with a description of it, with the following words—'The effects produced by the Sistine Choir in S. Pietro in Vincoli were beyond anything I had ever before heard, or conceived. But a repetition of them is only possible under the same circumstances.' Let us trust that the time is not far distant, when the same circumstances may occur more frequently.

[ W. S. R. ]

1. For this purpose, John the Præcentor was sent to England during the Primacy of Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury (669–690). At the request of King Pepin (750–768), Simeon, the Secundicerius of the Roman Schola, was sent, in like manner, to France, but recalled by Pope Paul I. in 763, that he might succeed to the office of the then lately deceased Primicerius, Georgius: while, towards the close of the same century, two celebrated singers, Theodorus and Benedictus, were sent by Hadrian I. (772–795) to Charlemagne.
2. Baini, i. p. 272, Note 375.
3. Mendelssohn, in one of his Letters, gives an amusing description of one of these enormous books, which he saw carried in front of Baini, as he walked, in Procession, up the Nave of S. Peter's.
4. The Sistine Chapel was added to the Vatican in the year 1473, by Pope Sixtus IV, for whom it was designed, by Baccio Pinelli. in the form of a lofty oblong hall, 146 ft. 6 in. long, and 50 ft. 6 in. wide, with a gallery running round three of its sides. Its walls are decorated with Frescoes, by Signorelli, Botticelli, Roselli, Ghirlandaio, Salviati, and Perugino. By command of Pope Julius II, the roof was also painted, by Michael Angelo, and first exhibited to the public, after four years of labour, on All Saints' Day, 1511, the Pope officiating in person. The space above the Altar is occupied by the same great Painter's Fresco of 'The Last Judgment'; begun in the year 1533, and completed in 1541. The upper portion of the Chapel, containing the Altar, the Pope's Throne, and the Cardinals' Seats, is separated from the lower by a Screen. The Gallery occupied by the Choir is just within this Screen, on the right, enclosed by a kind of Grille.
5. Nevertheless, this secret does not seem to be altogether lost. A lady traveller in Spain and Portugal, writing some six or seven years ago, amusingly expresses her surprise, on discovering that certain high flute-like notes, which she believed to have been produced by some beautiful young girl, really emanated from the throat of burly individual with a huge black beard and wiskers!
6. These statements are founded on information supplied to us by gentlemen resident in Rome, whose high position and long experience render their evidence more than ordinarily trustworthy.
7. I.e. not by operation
8. In Adami da Bolsena's 'Osservazioni' (Roma 1711) will be found numerous portraits of Soprani and Contralti, with long beards—many of them Priests.
9. There are three principal Choirs, in Rome, besides that of which we are writing: (1) that of S. Peter's, now under the direction of Sig. Salvatore Meluzzi, consisting of from 16 to 18 members, of whom five possess the Voce bianca, two being Boys; (2) that of S. Giovanni Laterano, consisting of 12 members, of whom two are Boys; and (3) that of S. Maria Maggiore, consisting of eight members, with no Soprano Voices.
10. Pronounced Sólfa, with the accent on the first syllable. The obedience enforced by this time-honoured instrument is so strict, that an Italian proverb says, of an imperious man, Egli batte la solfa.
11. We mentioned In our article Miserere [vol. ii. p. 336b), that a copy of that celebrated work was published, at Lugano, in 1840, by a certain 'Nobilliomo, Sig. Alessandro Geminiani, Filarmonico, e Mathematico.' with whose name we were, otherwise, unacquainted. We did not know, at that time, that the work was really edited, and the preface written, by Alfieri, who, however, did not wish his name to be publicly associated with it. This circumstance, of the correctness of which we are assured, on the highest possible authority, adds, of course, immeasurably, to the value of this now very scarce edition.
12. Dr. Hullah.