A History of the Knights of Malta/Chapter 12

CHAPTER XII.

1503—1521.

• Election of D’Amboise
• Futile descent of Camalis
• Capture of Turkish galleys and of the “Queen of the Seas”
• Defeat of the Turkish fleet in the Gulf of Ajaccio
• Election and death of Blanchefort
• Accession of Carretto
• Usurpation of Selim
• Conquest of Egypt by the sultan
• Death of Selim and accession of Solyman
• Death of Carretto
• Description of Rhodes in 1521, and at present.

The death of D’Aubusson was speedily followed by that of the Pope, to the inexpressible relief of the whole Christian world, the scandalous iniquities which had disgraced his pontificate having excited the abhorrence of every one. Nowhere was the event hailed with greater joy than at Rhodes. The Pope had in his grasping rapacity seized upon all the appointments and emoluments in the possession of the fraternity as they successively became vacant, and either bestowed them on members of his own family or openly sold. them to the highest bidder. Remonstrances had proved utterly unavailing, and nothing seemed left to the Order but either tamely to submit to this wanton infraction of all their rights and privileges, or else to cast off their allegiance to the pontiff, who, vile though his personal character might be, was nevertheless recognized as the head of the church and their own immediate ecclesiastical superior. happily the death of Alexander obviated the necessity for such an alternative, and the knights were permitted to continue their maritime warfare against the Moslem under their new chief without further hindrance from the court of Rome.^[1]

This Grand-Master was Almeric D’Amboise, grand-prior of France. He was the younger brother of George D’Amboise, archbishop of Rouen, cardinal legate of the Hoiy See, and prime minister to the French monarch. At the time of his nomination Almerio was at the court, where in his position of grand-prior he was an honoured adviser of the king. Indeed, so much were his services appreciated that on his departure to assume the reins of government at Rhodes, Charles presented him with the sword which his ancestor St. Louis had carried at Damietta, together with a piece of the true cross. The nine years during which his sway extended were marked by a series of naval combats, in which the Order reaped much distinction. The death of Djem having freed Bajazet from all necessity to remain on good terms with the fraternity, he at once entered into a treaty with the sultan of Egypt, the object of which was the attack of Rhodes and the annihilation of the naval supremacy of the knights in the Levant. In pursuance of this treaty, he despatched a celebrated Turkish corsair named Kémal, or Camalis, with a powerful fleet to ravage the islands of the religion. This expedition proved a complete failure. Driven successively from Rhodes, Symia, Telos, Nisyrus, and Lango, he at length directed his efforts against Leros, an insignificant post which had been but feebly fortified and slenderly garrisoned. At the moment of attack there was but one knight in the fort, a youth named Paul Simeonis, a member of the Italian langue, by birth a Piedmontese. His gallantry and presence of mind saved even this petty station from the aggression of the Turk. Dressing up all the inhabitants of the place, women as well as men, in the robes of knights of St. John, with red surcoat and white cross, he caused them to line the ramparts in every direction. The corsair, perceiving, as he thought, a large body of the fraternity awaiting his attack, was under the impression that a strong reinforcement had been thrown into the place. He therefore declined the attempt, and returned to Constantinople without a single trophy to mark the prowess of his arms.

The knights shortly after obtained several other advantages over the enemy. Upon one occasion a Turkish fleet of seven vessels, well-armed and fully equipped, having been despatched to the attack of Lango, fell into their hands by a stratagem. Two of these vessels had been sent in advance by the commander of the expedition for the purpose of reconnoitring the island, and had approached so near as to be discovered by the inhabitants. There were at the time only two galleys in the harbour, but these were at once sent out with instructions to intercept the advancing enemy, if pos. sible. They succeeded in creeping out of the harbour unperceived, and contrived to cut off the retreat of the Turks so effectually that these were compelled to run their vessels ashore and seek refuge within the woods of the island. The knights promptly floated their new acquisitions, and having embarked a sufficient crew from amongst the ranks of the garrison, they set sail to the encounter of the remainder of the Turkish fleet, followed at some distance by their own two galleys. The Turks, perceiving their vessels returning, and having no suspicion of what had occurred, advanced to meet them in perfect security and confidence. Great was their dismay when the first broadside from their insidious opponents revealed the calamity that had befallen them. Ere they had well recovered from their surprise, and prepared for a hostile encounter, the two Rhodian galleys were descried bearing rapidly down upon the scene of strife. With this reinforcement the victory was speedily accomplished, and the remaining five ships carried in triumph into port. The crews, including those who had already landed in the island, were sold into slavery.

This advantage was followed shortly afterwards by another, involving the capture of a carrack which trafficked annually between the ports of Egypt and the north coast of Africa. This vessel, which was called the Jlograbine, or “Queen of the Seas,” was of so great a size that it was said six men could scarcely embrace her mainmast. She had no less than seven decks, and carried 100 guns, with a crew of 1,000 men. Gastineau, commander of Limoges, undertook to attempt the capture of this leviathan, freighted as she was with an enormous quantity of costly merchandise. Having succeeded in running his galley close alongside of the carrack under cover of a parley, he suddenly opened a murderous discharge upon her crowded decks. The effect was tremendous, the captain of the carrack being amongst the killed. Whilst the Turks were in a state of panic at this unlooked-for assault, and without a leader, Gastineau, followed by his crew, dashed on board and secured the prize, which he carried safely into Rhodes. The proceeds of this capture were very large. Not only did the rich merchandise afford an ample plunder, but the ransoms which the sultan of Egypt was compelled to pay for the release of the captured merchants brought a most welcome addition to the funds of the treasury.

Three years later a still more important advantage attested the naval superiority of the knights of Rhodes. The sultan of Egypt had, with the sanction of the Ottoman emperor, despatched into the gulf of Ajaccio a colony of shipbuilders under the protection of a fleet of twenty-five vessels, commissioned to construct ships to be employed against the galleys of Rhodes. The Grand-Master at once fitted out an expedition against this colony. The conduct of the enterprise was confided to a Portuguese knight called Andrew d’Amaral, whose name subsequently attained a melancholy notoriety during the second siege of Rhodes. Associated in the command with him was another knight named Villiers do L’Isle Adam, who was destined to achieve a very different reputation during the same struggle. The attack upon the Egyptian colony and its protecting ships was eventually completely successful, although the issue of the day hung for a long time in the balance. The fleet was utterly destroyed, many of the vessels being sunk, and the remainder captured, whilst their crews and the shipbuilders who were seized on land were brought as slaves into the harbour of Rhodes.

It was during the rule of D’Amboise that the gate which bears his name was completed. Newton thus speaks of this structure: “The castello is entered from the west by a noble gateway commenced by the Grand-Master D’Aubusson after a great earthquake, and finished by his successor D’Amboise, from whom this gate takes its name. Over the door within an ogee frame is a slab of white marble, on which is sculptured in relief an angel holding the escutcheon of D’Amboise, with the inscription Amboyse MDXII.”

The completion of this gateway must have been the last important act in the career of the Grand-Master, as he died on the 8th November, 1512, at the age of seventy-eight years, much honoured and regretted.

Guy de Blanchefort, nephew of Peter D’Aubusson, and grand-prior of Auvergue, became the forty-first Grand-Master, a post for which he was highly qualified, and to which his numerous important services had justly entitled him. It was to his care that Djem had been intrusted during the lengthened residence of that prince in France. He had subsequently been nominated to the office of lieutenant to the Grand-Master, in which position he had rendered much important assistance both to D’Aubusson and to D’Amboise. The high reputation which his talents had gained for him raised a general expectation that his tenure of office would be a distinguished one. He was not, however, fated to realize these flattering aspirations, his career having been cut short by death within a few months of his accession.

He was at the time of his nomination residing in his grand-priory, and the Turks took advantage of the absence of a Grand-Master from Rhodes to develop a plot amongst some of the Greek inhabitants and Turkish slaves. They had made preparations by which, on a given signal, one of the gates of the town should be seized, and handed over to a Turkish force to be secretly landed on the island. Fortunately the plot was discovered, but owing to the determination of those who were arrested not to betray their accomplices, very few were brought to justice. The news of this attempt made Blanchefort hurry his departure from France, although he was at the time in a very feeble state of health. As the voyage progressed his illness became more and more pronounced, and when off the coast of Sicily he was so evidently in a dying state that the knights who accompanied him urged him to land there. The heroism of Blanchefort supported him in this trying hour. At all times ready to maintain the interests of the Order, even at the risk of his own life, he was now prepared to forego the comfort of spending his last moments on shore, fearing that by so doing he might cause an injury to the fraternity of which he was the chief. He felt that were he to die so close to the court of Rome the Pope would be sure to avail himself of that event to secure the nomination of a creature of his own, without reference to the council at Rhodes. He persisted, therefore, in holding on his course, and when he felt his last hour approaching, he directed that the swiftest galley in the fleet which accompanied him should be held in readiness to push on for Rhodes the instant that life had become extinct, so that the earliest intelligence of the event might be received there.

His decease occurred off the island of Zante, and in accordance with the instructions he had given, the sad intelligence was at once sent on to Rhodes, where it became known on the night of the 13th of October, 1513. The knights immediately assembled for the election of a new chief, and we find it recorded that upon this occasion there were present in the island the following numbers:—Of the langue of France, 100; Provence, 90; Auvergne, 84; Castile and Portugal, 88; Aragon, 66; Italy, 60; England, 38, and Germany, 6, making a total of 531 knights, without counting chaplains or serving brothers. Fabricius Carretto, the conventual bailiff of the langue of Italy, and consequently grand-admiral of the Order, a knight who had greatly distinguished himself in the late siege of Rhodes by his defence of Fort St. Nicholas, was nominated to the vacant office.

Very important changes had of late years been taking place in the East, which threatened the island of Rhodes with a renewed attack from the Ottoman power. The emperor Bajazet was the father of three sons, of whom the two elder partook greatly of his own inert and peaceable disposition. The youngest, whose name was Selim, inherited all the ambition and warlike aspirations of those ancestors who had raised the Turkish empire to its existing state of grandeur. Being as politic as he was warlike, Selim, the sole dream of whose life was to ascend the throne to which by birth he had no claim, exerted all his powers to ingratiate himself with the janissaries of his father’s army. In this attempt he succeeded so well that with their aid he contrived to depose his aged parent. He followed up this step by murdering him, as well as his two elder brothers, and the youthful parricide, having thus cleared the way, mounted the throne without fear of rivalry.

The accession of this fierce and warlike prince caused the utmost dismay amongst the neighbouring nations. With just reason they dreaded that before long they would become the victims of the same aggressive policy which had seated him on the throne of his father. In this fear the knights of Rhodes warmly participated, and they consequently at once cemented a treaty of affiance with the king of Persia and the sultan of Egypt. The storm burst, in the first instance, over the latter kingdom, and despite the efforts of the allies carried everything before it. The power of Selim, assisted by the treachery of the two Mamelouk governors, to whom had been confided the defence of the frontier, enabled him in the course of four years to overrun the whole of that country, and to add it to his own dominions. The traitorous Mamelouk chiefs were invested, one with the government of Egypt, the other with that of Syria, and the conquest being thus completed, Selim turiied his attention towards Rhodes, for the reduction of which he commenced immediate and formidable preparations. Whilst thus occupied he died suddenly of malignant cancer, and so afforded anoiher respite to the fraternity, of which the members were not slow in availing themselves for the still further protection of their island.

His only son, Solyman, ascended the throne precisely at the same time that Charles V. was crowned emperor of Germany at Aix-la-Chapelle, and he was destined, during the course of his long reign, to become the most illustrious of that race of conquerors from whom he sprang, and to earn for himself the title of Solyman the Magnificent.

He had not long enjoyed his sovereignty when he was compelled to advance against the newly-appointed governor of Syria. Gazelles, the Mamelouk traitor, who had been placed over the province by Selim, conceived that as that redoubtable chieftain was dead, the opportunity was favourable for a revolt against his youthful successor, and for his own establishment in independent power. In aid of this project he besought the alliance of Carretto, who, overjoyed at the prospect of a dissension which might divert the menacing attitude of the Ottoman emperor, assisted him with both men and matériel. The power of Solyman proved too great for Gazelles to withstand; in the very first engagement which ensued his forces were routed, and he himself killed on the field of battle.

This was the closing political incident in the life of Fabricius Carretto, and he breathed his last in the month of January, 1521. His tomb was placed beneath one of the windows in the nave of the church of St. John. It is thus described by Newton:—“In the pavement of the nave are the remains of the tomb of the Grand-Master Fabricio del Carretto. His effigy, which must have been sculptured in low relief on a flat slab, has been destroyed, but the border still remains (1853) with an inscription at the foot recording his name, titles, and services, with the date 1520^[2] (this should be 1521). At the head of the slab was his escutcheon. Carretto was the last Grand-Master buried at Rhodes.”

The knights had now been resident hi the island for a period of upwards of 200 years, and the hour was close at hand when they were to be driven from its shores. It seems, therefore, a suitable time to enter into some detailed description of its state in this the last year of their dominion. A general account of the town and fortifications has already been given as they stood at the time of the first siege. Since then many additions and developments had been carried out. The English archologist Newton, and the French writer Biliotti, a native of Rhodes, have both given graphic descriptions of the present state of the city and island, the latter writer in very considerable detail. The bulk of what follows is gathered from these sources. Newton thus portrays the Castello, that part of the town which, forming the upper horn of the crescent made by the line of ramparts, was the residence of the knights. After describing the entrance by the Amboiso gate already quoted, he continues as follows:—“A drawbridge connects this gateway with a stone bridge which here spans the fosse with three arches. Passing through this gate, a vaulted passage leads through the counterscarp over a second and third fosse, which defend the palace of the Grand-Master on the west. After crossing the third fosse the road enters the Castello between the church of St. John and the palace of the Grand-Master, opposite to the upper end of the street of the knights. This street, which runs east and west, divides the Castello into two nearly equal parts. On the south is the church of St. John the Baptist, which seems to have been enlarged and altered by successive Grand-Masters, and was probably founded by Foulkes de Villaret on the first establishment of the knights at Rhodes. The outside has no architectural feature. Its plan is a regular basilica, containing a nave and two aisles with a clock tower, the upper part of which was destroyed in the siege (the second siege is here alluded to). The interior dimensions are 150 feet in length by 52 feet in breadth. The columns dividing the aisles from the nave are chiefly of granite, and are probably taken from several ancient buildings. The roof is of wood; the beams and ceiling blue, spangled with gold stars.”

This church replaced a Byzantine chapel, which, in its turn, had been raised on the ruins of an ancient Greek temple. The simplicity of the exterior was in striking contrast with the richness of the interior fittings. Numerous valuable pictures, gold and silver ornaments of all kinds, and rich ecclesiastical vestments were to be found therein. There were fifteen of these pictures, gorgeously framed and each adorned with the cross of the Order in solid gold, statues of the twelve apostles in silver gilt, a lamb in gold, statues of the Virgin Mary and of St. John the Baptist also in gold, a golden chalice valued at 320 crowns, superb missals and rich reliquaries, chief amongst which was the magnificent ivory casket containing the hand of St. John. The windows were ifiled with stained glass, adorned with the escutcheons of the most celebrated knights; in many eases, probably, the arms were those of the donors of the windows. This church was, unfortunately, compktely destroyed at the end of the year 1856 by an explosion of powder stored in the vaults beneath the building. This powder is supposed to have been left there by the knights at the close of the siege in 1522, and it is asserted that its existence was unknown to the Turkish authorities until the explosion took place. It seems somewhat doubtful whether gunpowder would retain its explosive qualities for a period of 334 years, the more so as in those early days it was probably of a rough and inferior manufacture. Be this as it may, an explosion did undoubtedly take place on the date named. The descriptions, therefore, of the building given to us by Newton and Biliotti are all the more interesting and valuable.

The clock tower referred to by the former was, in reality, a campanile, quite distinct from the church. It was used as a military observatory in both sieges. It will be seen further on that it was on this account subjected to such heavy fire in the siege of 1522, that it was nearly destroyed. It bore the escutcheons of several Grand-Masters who had at different times restored and adorned it.

Newton continues his description with the following account of the present condition of the Grand-Master’s palace:—“Opposite the church of St. John is the entrance to the palace of the Grand-Master, through a gateway flanked by two towers facing the south. On entering under this gateway we come to an open space covered with cisterns, in which the Turks keep stores of grain.^[3] In front is a confused mass of numerous buildings, of which the plan can no longer be made out. On the left are strong square towers defending the citadel on the west. On the right a staircase leads to an open gallery communicating with many small rooms. In these the garrison probably dwelt. On the north the palace is defended by a tower overlooking a broad and lofty platform, which is raised by solid masonry out of the depth of the fosse. It was from artillery planted on this platform that the Turks suffered so much during the first siege in their attack on Fort St. Nicholas, from the church of St. Antonio, now a small mosque near the Lazaretto. Returning from the Grand-Master’s palace, we look down the long and narrow street, which is well known to travellers by the name of Strada dei Cavalieri, or street of the knights. In no European city, perhaps, can be found a street so little changed since the fifteenth century. No Vandal hand has disturbed the perfect repose and keeping of the scene by demolition or repairs; the very pavement has a mediieval look, as if it had known no thoroughfare since its broad marbles were trodden by Christian warriors three centuries ago. No sound of near or distant traffic breaks in on the congenial stillness. We might almost suppose the houses to be without inhabitants were it not for the rude Turkish jalousies which project on either side, flinging long slanting shadows across the richly-sculptured façades, and lending mystery to a solitude only disturbed when from the gloom of some deep archway a veiled form glides by with averted face, scared at the unwelcome presence of the Frank traveller.”

Starting from St. John’s Church, the street of the knights slopes towards the church of St. Catherine, and contains throughout a long series of most interesting monumental records. The first object to meet the view is the ruin of the arcades which originally supported the great chapter hall. This building had been gradually falling into decay, and was completely destroyed by the explosion before referred to, but there was enough left prior to that event to give a very good idea of the grandeur and elegance of the original structure. On the foundation can be traced an old Greek inscription, showing that it had been erected on the ruins of a temple to Jupiter Sotirus. The first of the auberges or inns of the various langues was that of Spain, which occupies an angle in the street. This building was covered with armorial escutcheons, most of which have been lately removed by a Turkish officer, supposed to have been an aide-do-camp of the sultan, and by him taken to Constantinople. Immediately beyond the auberge, a narrow staircase leads to a stone pulpit, from which the decrees of the council were promulgated. Most probably it was from this pulpit that the Greek archbishop called the inhabitants to arms during the siege of 1522, when the Turkish forces were driven from the bastions which they had carried.

Towards the middle of the street, the most striking object is the auberge of France, which is a very highly ornamented structure. Over the principal entrance are escutcheons bearing on one side the arms of the Order, and on the other those of the Grand-Master Amboise. On the first floor are the arms of France side by side with those of D’Aubusson. Over the former is the motto Montjoie Sainct Denis, and over the latter the cardinal’s hat. Beneath these escutcheons runs the legend Voluntas Dei Est, 1495. The arms of L’Isle Adam appear twice, dated 1511, whilst he was grand-prior of France. The arms of the celebrated engineer, Peter Clouet, whose talents had been so much in request at Rhodes, also appear in two separate places. The cornices, window-labels, and architraves are most elaborately ornate. The coping is battlemented, the line being broken by corbelled turrets, and by gargoyles in the form of fantastic dragons.

A little farther on, hidden at the end of a gloomy court, stood a sombre-looking building, bearing the quotation from the 74th Psalm, Exurge Dornine judica causam tuam. This was the court of justice of the convent. It has recently been destroyed by fire.

The auberges of Italy and England stood, the one by the side of the church of St. Catherine, the other opposite the Hospital. The auberge of Italy bore the arms of the Grand-Master Carretto, with the date 1519, but they have been removed by some unknown despoiler. The English auberge was also adorned with the arms of the kingdom and with those of several distinguished knights of the langue. These have all been removed of late years.

Newton describes the decorations of the auberges thus: “The style of architecture throughout the street is an interesting modification of the modern Gothic. The escutcheons are generally set in a richly-sculptured ogee arch. Most of the windows are square-headed, with labels and upright mullions, while the pointed arch is constantly employed in the doorways. In the rich and fantastic ornaments we recognize the Flamboyant style so generally prevalent in Europe in the fifteenth century, but these ornaments are but sparingly introduced, so as not to disturb the noble simplicity of the general design. In all the edifices built by the knights at Rhodes we see the same tendency to temper the stern and naked ruggedness of military masonry, as far as possible, with rich ornaments, such as we generally find associated with ecclesiastical architecture. No fitter symbol could have been adopted than this mixed style, to express the character of an Order at once military and religious. The last building on the south side of the street is the hospital of the knights. This is a large square edifice, with a very simple external façade. The entrance is under a kind of vestibule facing the east. The original doors, which were of Cyprus wood, richly carved, were given to the prince de Joinville on the occasion of his visit to Rhodes. On either side are large vaults, now used as warehouses. The inside is a quadrangle, supported on vaults, above which are open arcades, formed of round arches resting on pillars. Adjoining the arcades are four long rooms, corresponding with the four sides of the quadrangle. These saloons and the open galleries are covered with a roof of Cyprus wood, in very fine condition. The four rooms were evidently for the sick, and the open galleries for the convalescent to walk in. In one of the vaulted magazines in the basement the chain which served to close the entrance to the harbour was formerly kept, and was seen by Ross in his visit in 1843. He describes it as 750 feet in length, each link being 1 foot long. Since his visit it has been removed to Constantinople. The hospital was commenced by Villeneuve, and completed by the Grand-Master Fluvian, and seems to have been well planned for its purpose.”

Such were the leading features of the Castello, so far as they can be judged from what still exists. We will now take a general survey of the town, considered as a fortress. First in importance was the fort of St. Nicholas, built, as has already been mentioned, by Raymond Zacosta. This work was so placed as to command both the inner and outer ports. The exterior trace is polygonal; a drawbridge leads under a low archway into the interior, where two ramps give access to the platform. Beneath this are the magazines, stores, tanks, &c., all arched. In the middle of the platform rises a round tower, two stories in height, on the summit of which is another platform, which, like the lower one, was armed with artillery. The tower and fort were seriously injured by Paleologus pasha, in the siege of 1480, and still more by the earthquakes in 1481. They were subsequently restored, and were in perfect repair before the siege of 1ö22 took place. There are still guns mounted in this work, some bearing the date of 1482, and others of 1507, as also the arms of the various langues. The fort was connected with the northeastern corner of the Castello by a mole and covered way leading to the gate of St. Paul. Next in importance was the tower of St. Michael, built by the Grand-Master de Naillac, which has already been described. This tower is now in ruins, only the foundations and a portion of the arcade by which it was joined to the gate of St. Paul are left. The tower of St. John, on the opposite side of the inner port, was not a strong work, being merely a battery, not capable of much defence, but well swept by the guns of the other works. These two last-named towers were connected with the enceinte by long moles, which were themselves armed with guns, and made into covered ways. The ports were thus well protected, and the defences sufficient to render an attack by water impracticable.

Starting from the gateway of St. Paul, the enceinte took a semi-circular sweep. From that point to the Grand-Master’s palace was the post of Auvergue, in a tower of which is still to be found a small magazine of powder. After passing the ramparts of the palace itself, the line sweeps southward, forming the post of Germany, in which stands the gateway of Amboise already described. This post reached as far as the gate of St. George, where that of France began. The gate of St. George was walled up by the knights between the first and second sieges. The post of France terminated at the Spanish tower, from whence the line was occupied by the langue of Spain as far as the tower of St. Mary. The English post was from the tower of St. Mary to that of St. John. In this line still appears a memorial to the English knight, Thomas Newport, with his escutcheon enclosed in a wreath, beneath which is the inscription “Hic Jacet F. Thomas Newport Podatus Aglie Miles Qi Obiit, 1502, xxii. Die Mesis, Septembris Cuius Anima Requiescat in Pace. Amen, 1502.” Below the inscription is a death’s head and crossbones. This monument is somewhat important, as it clearly shows that there were about this time two dignitaries of the English langue bearing those names. It has been always imagined that there was but one, who being Turcopoier was transferred to the bailiwick of Aquila in the year 1502, and was drowned in 1522, off the coast of Spain whilst en route for Rhodes. It is quite clear that no such transfer took place, but that the Turcopolier Thomas Newport died in 1502, whilst in the same year another Thomas Newport was appointed bailiff of Aquila, who was drowned as aforesaid.^[4]

By the side of St. John’s tower is the gateway of that name, forming the principal entrance into the town from the south. It was through this gate that the emperor Solyman made his triumphal entry after the capture of the fortress in 1522. A tablet in the entrance bears a Turkish inscription recording this fact. Over the gateway is a bas-relief of St. John the Baptist above the arms of the Order, by the side of which are the arms of D’Aubusson, who appears to have delighted in affixing his escutcheon at every available point. It must be admitted that this was an act of pardonable vanity on the part of a Grand-Master who had done so much in the way of additions and restorations to the fortifications. From St. John’s gate to the tower of Italy was the post of Provence, and from the latter point the post of Italy extended, making two bends until it reached the gate of St. Catherine.

This gateway has two entrances—one into the Castello, the other into the lower town. It is flanked by two large towers containing on each floor spacious halls which are now inaccessible, the stairs leading to them being destroyed. On the outside of the gate are the arms of the Order, and also those of Peter Clouet, the engineer, above which is a baa-relief of St. Catherine with the wheel and knife, St. Peter with the keys, and St. John with the lamb. The latter has been much defaced. These figures are protected by a canopy. There is the following inscription on the gate:—“Reverendus D. F. Petrus Daubussonis Rhodi Magnus Magister Hanc Portam et Turres Condidit Magisterii Anno Primo.” From the gate of St. Catherine to that of St. Paul was the post of Castile.

Such was the city of Rhodes at the commencement of the sixteenth century, and it is strange how little injury has been done to the decorations by the Turks, who have been its inhabitants for upwards of 300 years. The escutcheons have nowhere been wilfully damaged; even the crosses have been left intact. The only wanton destruction of which they appear to have been guilty has been in the baa-reliefs and tombs of the Grand-Masters and other dignitaries. Most of these have either disappeared, or have been so defaced as to be quite undecipherable.

Next to the fortress of Rhodes the most important post in the island was the castle of Lindos, where it will be remembered that Fulk de Villaret retired when he set at defiance the decrees of the council. Biliotti thus describes it:—“The fort built by the knights stands on the same site as the old acropolis, in a position almost impregnable. It is in truth an eagles’ nest perched upon the summit of a crag. A steep path leads to the fort, thence a wide flight of steps loads to the outer enceinte and enters by a gate opening on to a platform of 120 paces in length by 80 in breadth. This platform is surrounded by a thick battlemented wall. After surmounting long flights of steps and numerous galleries, perpetually intercepted with machicolated gateways, we reach one leading to the second platform, the site of the old temple of Minerva. This temple had been succeeded by a Greek acropolis, so that the eye can now dwell on three different epochs of structure. The residence bf the present governor and some small houses for the garrison are the work of the architects of the Order. The materials of the older buildings have been largely used in their construction, and in many places precious fragments of old marbles occupy the position of humble masonry. The original palace of the Order at present only exists in shell, and it would be very difficult to trace its internal construction. The ceilings have fallen in, the pavements are torn up, the partition walls thrown down; but patches of fresco still remain, from which can be guessed some of the subjects which adorned the walls. The chisel contributed as well as the brush to the severe type of ornamentation which accords faithfully with the ideas of those times. Mouldings of a sober elegance surrounded the escutcheons of the Order and of D’Amboise which are still existing. Over the mantlepiece of a fireplace, of which the ample dimensions mark the great dining hail, may be seen the fleur de lys of France.”

Connected with the palace are the ruins of a chapel dedicated to St. John. This building consisted of three naves terminating with an apse, the length eighty feet and the width fifty feet. The population of Lindos in the time of the knights amounted to 2,500 souls, which number is now reduced to 650.

The village of Castellos, on the western side of the island, took its name from the fortress erected there by the knights as a look-out station. It is now in a state of ruin; still, enough remains to trace its construction. The castle is square; on one side it is flanked with two round and on the opposite angle by one square tower. On the wall at the eastern side are the arms of D’Amboise and of Carretto side by side. The angle between the east and south has been out away for flanking purposes, and on the plane thus formed stand the arms of Carretto alone. Those of the Order on two escutcheons appear on an internal wall. The work was on two levels, and from the upper tower a view was obtained over a wide extent of sea. It was so constructed as to be capable of a lengthened defence, and was quite secure against a coup de main.

The village of Cremasti is so called from having been the summer residence of the Grand-Masters, the corruption of the Turkish name from Grand-Maistrie being evident. The palace was erected by Carretto, whose arms appear in several directions. It was square in form and not intended to resist any serious attack. In addition to these posts there were many forts of a minor character placed in advantageous positions all over the island. These were garrisoned by a few soldiers only, and trusted for their defence principally to the peasants, who flocked thither for shelter upon the alarm being given of an enemy’s approach.

The chapel of Our Lady of Philermo was undoubtedly the most important and interesting building left by the fraternity outside the city of Rhodes. It was built to contain a picture of the Virgin Mary, which they held in especial reverence, and supposed to have been from the brush of the evangelist St. Luke. In an arched crypt about twenty feet long and eight wide are the remains of a large number of frescoes, the work of a member of the Order who had been a pupil of Cimabue. Two represented the Annunciation and the angel appearing to Joseph. Separated from these by mosaics came others in which were Elyon de Villanova, Fuik de Villaret, Roger de Pins, and Antonio Fluvian, all kneeling on cushions fully armed and aecoutred, supported by St. Michael, St. Catherine, the Virgin Mary, and an apostle. They are gazing at a representation at the end of the crypt of Our Saviour seated on a throne showing his five wounds, having on his right hand St. Peter and St. Paul, and on his left the Blessed Virgin, who is laying her hand on the head of a kneeling knight, and by her side St. Mary Magdalene. Under this picture are two others of St. Michael and St. George, each in the act of overcoming his adversary, and between them the cross of the Order.^[5]

Other frescoes have as subjects—Our Lady with the seven swords; our Saviour on the cross, with the Virgin Mary and St. John (over this picture are two knights of St. John in prayer); the Passion is represented in seven pictures; the agony in the garden; the taking of our Lord by torchlight; the scene in the prtotorium; the scourging; the crowning with thorns; St. Veronica and the handkerchief; and lastly, the crucifixion. To the east of this crypt stood the church itself, of which only the ruins of a portion remain, but from these it may be seen that the building was grand and important, being probably richly sculptured and ornamented. It consisted of two long naves separated by a row of fluted columns whose capitals carried the vaulted roof, which was groined. Behind the nave, and connected with it by a small door, are the remains of the sacristy, also divided in two. From traces still to be seen it may be gathered that the building was constructed so as to serve for purposes of defence.

During the two centuries in which the knights were settled in Rhodes, the manufacture of faience was much encouraged. This pottery is still greatly sought after, and is known as Lindos ware. It partakes somewhat of the character of Majolica. It is supposed that it was introduced into the island by Persian prisoners, who were employed at this work instead of being chained to the oar of a galley. One of these dishes of Lindos ware bears the inscription in Persian, "O God, how long shall we remain in this land of exile?” which seems to corroborate the supposition. Cotton stuffs, embroidered in silk, were also a staple trade of the island. The cotton and silk were both produced there, and the embroidered material in the form of curtains, cushions, and other furniture was much prized. It was supposed that the silkworms were fed on brilliantly-coloured flowers, thereby imparting to the silk natural dyes, which resisted the fading influences of light.

It is impossible now to trace the principles of government adopted towards the native population. It can only be surmised that since no tradition remains of dislike to the memory of the knights, their rule was probably fairly lenient. It must, of course, be assumed that, living as they did in a condition of constant warfare, the island was more or less in a permanent state of siege. Still the people apparently flourished under a government which, if rigid, was at all events tolerably just. In the absence of any more direct testimony, we may argue favourably from the fact of the extraordinary fidelity of the peasantry during the two long and perilous sieges, when their privations and sufferings were very great. The enormous increase in the population of the island during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries may also be taken in proof of the beneficence of the government. The tradition remains of one admirable regulation made by the fraternity. A certain portion of the grain harvest was taken from each farmer, and stored in the granaries of the fortress. Should a siege take place, this amount of grain sufficed to feed the population who flocked into the town. Should the year pass without such misfortune, it was returned intact to the owner, and a corresponding portion of the new crop taken in its stead. The farmer, therefore, under ordinary circumstances, might consider that he merely stored a portion of his harvest in the public granaries for a twelvemonth, at the expiration of which time he received it back uninjured. By this simple means the fortress was kept permanently provisioned. There can be no question of the religious tolerance of the knights. Living as they did in the midst of a population mostly professing the Greek faith, it would have been difficult, if not impossible, for them to have kept the inhabitants loyal, had they not in every way remained on good terms with the Greek priesthood. It is one of the few cases in which members of the Roman and Greek faith were cooped up within such narrow limits, and yet maintained such great friendship.

The Order coined its own money from the earliest time of its settlement in Rhodes. It is impossible now to compile a complete list of the various coins thus issued. Enough, however, remain to illustrate the subject. The silver coins consisted of crowns, ducats, and forms. The earlier ones carried on one side a cross, on the other a kneeling knight. Later on they bore the arms of the Grand-Master. Thus we find coins of Elyon de Villanova representing him kneeling before a cross; on the other side a “fleur de lisee" cross. On one side the legend Fr. Elions De Vilanora M. R., on the other Ospital S. Ion Icros: Rodi. Coins struck by D’Amboise bore on the one side the arms of that Grand-Master with the legend F. Emericus Damboise Magn. Mag. R., and on the other the lamb of St. John, with the words Agn. Dei Qui Tollis Pecca Mun Mise No. Those issued by L’Isle Adam bore his head with the words F. Phus De Lile-Adam, M. Hosplis Hieri M.; on the reverse his arms, with the motto Da Mihi Virtutem Contra Hostes Tuos.

The measures of length, capacity, and weight were probably the same as were at the time used throughout the Levant, and these were Greek.

Such was the state of the island of Rhodes during the last years of the Order’s sway. From that time its decadence has been steady and continued. Its natural beauties still remain, but all that depended on the energy of man has gradually fallen into decay. Rhodes has partaken of the blight which seems to fall on everything subjected to Ottoman rule, and lives on now in the memory of the past.

1. The date quoted in the last chapter for the death of D’Aubusson as having taken place in 1503 is that given by all the older historians of the Order, but it has lately been disputed. Colonel Rottiers, who has carefully studied the remains of the knights in Rhodes, places it at 1505, and his opinion is shared by Biliotti. The argument upon which this change of date is based is as follows:—The tower of St. Paul, in which stands one of the gateways leading into the town of Rhodes from the harbour, was unquestionably built by D’Aubusson, and bears a Latin inscription stating that fact. Over the gateway in this tower is a shield bearing the arms of D’Aubusson, and by its side another with those of Pope Julius II. As this latter is surmounted by the keys and tiara, it is clear that it was not fixed there until after its bearer had become Pope. That event did not take place until the year 1504, and it is argued that some tiie must have elapsed after his elevation to the Papacy before he could have done anything in favour of the Order sufficient to merit the distinction of having his arms coupled with those of D’Aubusson over the gateway of St. Paul. They therefore fix 1505 as the earliest date when D’Aubusson’s death could have taken place. This argument seems very weak when brought against the general agreement of all the older historians in fixing the earlier date. The gate, though undoubtedly built by D’Aubusson, might not have been completed at the time of his death, or the armorial bearings might have been a subsequent insertion. I cannot accept the argument as sufficient by itself to warrant an alteration in the year.
2. The actual inscription ran thus:—“ R. et Ill. D. F. Fabricius De Carretto Magnus Rhodi Magister Urbis Instaurator et ad Publicam Utilitatern per Septenniurn Rector lie Jacet Anno MDXXI.”
3. These cisterns are probably the same in character as the fosses used in Malta for a similar purpose, which are excavations in the soft stone rock and cemented. Their shape is usually the frustrum of a cone. They contain about fifty quarters of wheat.
4. See List of Turcopoliers and Bailiffs of Aquila, iii Appendix No. 11.
5. The presence of this cross, which is eight-pointed and precisely similar to that known as the Maltese Cross, and a corresponding one on the shoulder of the knight referred to in the fresco as kneeling, with the hand of the Virgin Mary on his head, sets at rest a question which Biliotti has mooted, whether the Order bore the eight-pointed cross, as now known, whilst they were at Rhodes. He asserts that nowhere in the armorial bearings and other remains at Rhodes could he find that cross. He has quite overlooked these frescoes.