Index:Plant succession; an analysis of the development of vegetation.pdf

Title	Plant succession; an analysis of the development of vegetation
Author	Frederic Edward Clements
Year	1916
Publisher	Carnegie Institution of Washington
Location	Washington
Source	pdf
Progress	To be proofread
Transclusion	Index not transcluded or unreviewed
OCLC	2327604

Pages (key to Page Status)

– – – – Title – III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII – 1 2 3 4 (1) – 5 6 (2) – 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 (3) – 35 36 (4) – 37 38 39 40 (5) – 41 42 43 44 45 46 (6) – 47 48 (7) – 49 50 (8) – 51 52 53 54 55 56 (9) – 57 58 (10) – 59 60 (11) – (12) – 61 62 (13) – 63 64 (14) – 65 66 (15) – 67 68 69 70 (16) – 71 72 (17) – 73 74 (18) – 75 76 (19) – 77 78 (20) – 79 80 81 82 (21) – 83 84 85 86 (22) – 87 88 (23) – 89 90 (24) – 91 92 (25) – 93 94 95 96 97 98 (26) – 99 100 101 102 (27) – 103 104 (28) – (29) – 105 106 (30) – 107 108 (31) – 109 110 (32) – 111 112 (33) – 113 114 115 116 (34) – 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 (35) – 127 128 (36) – 129 130 (37) – 131 132 133 134 (38) – 135 136 Img – (40) – 137 138 (41) – 139 140 (42) – 141 142 (43) – 143 144 145 146 (44) – 147 148 149 150 (45) – 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 – 163 164 165 166 167 168 (47) – 169 170 171 172 (48) – 173 174 175 176 (49) – 177 178 (50) – 179 180 (51) – 181 182 (52) – 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 (53) – 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 (54) – 293 294 (55) – 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 (56) – (57) – 311 312 313 314 (58) – 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 (59) – (60) – 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 (61) – 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 – – – – – –

Preface iii

List of illustrations X

Concept and Causes of Succession

The formation an organism 3

Universal occurrence of succession 3

Viewpoints of succession 3

Succession and sere 4

Sere and cosere 4

Processes in succession 4

Causes of Succession

Relation of causes 5

Kinds of causes 5

Proximate and remote causes 5

Essential Nature of Succession

Developmental aspect 6

Functional aspect 7

General Historical Summary

Early Investigations

King, 1685 8

Degner, 1729 9

Buffon, 1742 9

Biberg, 1749 10

Anderson, 1794 10

De Luc, 1806 10

Rennie, 1810 12

Dureau, 1825 13

Steenstrup, 1842 14

Reissek, 1856 16

Vaupell, 1857 17

von Post, 1861 17

Gremblich, 1876 18

Müller, 1878-1887 19

Other investigations 19

Recent Investigations

Blytt, 1876 21

Hult, 1885-1887 22

Warming, 1891 23

MacMillan, 1894-1896 24

Warming, 1895 25

Graebner, 1895 25

Pound and Clements, 1898-1900 26

Schimper, 1898 26

Cowles, 1899 27

Cowles, 1901 28

Clements, 1902-1904 29

Clements, 1904 29

Friih and Schroter, 1904 30

Clements, 1905-1907 30

Moss, 1907-1910 30

Clements, 1910 31

Cowles, 1911 31

Shantz, 1911 31

Tansley, 1911 31

MacDougal, 1914 32

Initial Causes

Significance of bare areas 33

Modifications of development 33

Processes as causes 34

Change of conditions 34

Fundamental nature of water-content 34

Kinds of initial causes 35

Physiography 36

Topographic Causes

Topographic processes 36

Kinds of processes 37

Base-leveling 38

Erosion

Nature 39

Agents of erosion 39

Rate and degree of erosion 40

Fragmentary and superficial erosion 40

Bare areas due to water erosion 41

Bare areas due to wind erosion 41

Bare areas due to gravity 41

Bare areas due to ice action 41

Deposit

Significance 42

Agents of deposit 42

Manner of deposit 43

Rate and depth of deposit 43

Place of deposit 44

Distance of transport 44

Fragmentary and local deposit 45

Sterility of deposits 45

Bare areas due to deposit by moving water 45

Bare areas due to waves and tides 46

Composition and water-content of alluvial deposits 46

Bare areas due to deposit by ground waters 46

Bare areas due to deposit by wind 47

Deposit by ice and snow 47

Bare areas due to deposit by glaciers 47

Bare areas due to deposit by ice and snow 48

Bare areas due to deposit by gravity 48

Bare areas due to volcanic deposits 49

Ponding and draining 49

Kinds of lakes and ponds 50

Life-history of a lake 50

Drainage 51

Elevation and Subsidence

Elevation and subsidence 52

New areas due to elevation 52

Subsidence 52

Earthquakes 54

Similarity of topographic processes 54

Edaphic Causes

Nature 55

Climatic Causes

Róle 55

Bare areas due to climatic factors directly 55

Bare areas due to drouth 56

Bare areas due to wind 56

Bare areas due to snow, hail, and frost 56

Bare areas due to lightning 57

Bare areas due indirectly to climatic factors 57

Sudden changes of climate 57

Biotic Causes

General relations 58

Action and effect 58

Bare areas due to destruction of vegetation alone 59

Bare areas with dry or drier soils 59

Bare areas with wet soils or water 60

Primary and Secondary Areas

Distinction 60

Sterility of primary and secondary areas 60

Denudation 61

Methods of denudation 61

Depth of removal or deposit 61

Rate and extent of removal 62

Ecesic Causes

Nature 63

Aggregation

Concept and róle 63

Effects of simple aggregation 63

Relation to denuded areas 64

Interaction of aggregation and migration 64

Migration

Concept 64

Mobility 64

Seed-production 65

Influence of the organ used 65

Influence of the migration contrivance 66

Role of migration agents 67

Destructive action of agents 67

Direction of migration 67

Ecesis

Nature and róle 68

Germination 69

Fate of seedling 70

Growth 71

Reproduction 71

Ecesis in bare areas 71

Competition

Nature 72

Competition and dominance 72

Competition in air and in soil 73

Róle of competition in succession 73

Invasion

Nature and róle 75

Kinds of invasion 75

Manner of invasion 76

Barriers 77

Biological barriers 77

Changes in barriers 78

Reactions

Concept and nature 79

Róle in succession 80

Previous analyses of reaction 80

Kinds of reactions 81

Soil Formation

Manner 81

Reaction by accumulating plant bodies or parts 81

Reaction by accumulating plant concretions 83

Reaction by producing weathering 83

Reaction upon wind-borne material 84

Reaction upon water-borne detritus 85

Reaction upon slipping sand and gravel 86

Soil Structure

Reaction by adding humus 86

Reaction by compacting the soil 87

Reaction by preventing weathering or erosion 88

Water-Content

Reaction by increasing water-content 88

Reaction by decreasing water-content 89

Nutrients and Solutes

Reaction by adding nutrients or foodstuffs 89

Reaction by decreasing nutrients 89

Reaction by producing acids 90

Reaction by producing toxins 90

Soil Organisms

Reaction by means of parasites 91

Reaction by means of saprophytes 92

Air Reactions

Reaction upon light 92

Reaction upon humidity, temperature, and wind 94

Reaction upon local climate 94

Reaction upon aërial organisms 95

Correlation of reactions 96

Quantitative study of reactions 96

Stabilization and Climax

Stabilization 98

Causes of stabilization 98

Relation to the climax 98

Degree of stabilization 99

Life-History Stages

Nature

Kinds of stages 100

Role of life forms 100

Reasons why plants disappear 100

Reasons why plants appear at certain stages 100

Reasons why plants appear before their proper time 103

Initial stages 103

Medial stages 105

The Climax

Concept 105

Nature 106

Relation to succession 106

Kinds of climaxes 107

Subclimaxes 107

Potential climaxes 108

Changes of climate 109

Preclimax and postclimax 109

Changes of climax 110

Structures and Units of Vegetation

Development and Structure

Relation 111

Kinds of structure 111

Zonation 111

Relations of climax zones 113

Significance of alternation 115

Developmental relation of layers 115

Relation of seasonal aspects 116

The Units of Vegetation

Historical Summary:

The formation concept 116

Grisebach's concept of the formation 116

Drude's concept 117

Clements's concept 118

Moss's concept 118

Schröter's concept 119

Gradmann's concept 119

Warming's concept 120

Negri's concept 122

Correlation of divergent views 122

Significance of development 123

Earlier suggestions of developmental view 123

The Formation:

Developmental concept of the formation 124

Analysis of the formation 125

Formation units 125

Formation 126

Names of formations 127

Climax Units:

Association 128

Consociation 129

Society 130

Bases 131

Kinds of societies 132

Aspect societies 132

Layer societies 133

Cryptogamic societies 133

Terminology 133

Changes of rank or dominance 134

Clan 134

Seral Units:

Nature and significance 135

Associes 136

Consocies 137

Socies 138

Colony 138

Family 139

Summary of units 139

Mixed communities 139

Nomenclature of units 140

Formation groups 142

Bases 143

Developmental groups 143

Direction of Development

Development always progressive 145

Nature of regression 145

Course of development 146

Regression and retrogression 146

Nilsson's view 146

Cowles's view 147

Cajander's view 149

Sernander's view 149

Moss's view 150

Hole's view 154

Conversion of forest 155

Status of forest in Britain 156

Artificial conversion 157

Graebner's studies: Conversion of forest to heath 157

Conversion of forest into moor 159

Causes of conversion 161

Possibility of backward development 162

Degeneration 163

Regeneration 163

Correlation of progressive developments 164

Convergence 165

Normal movement 166

Divergence 167

Classification of Seres

Historical 168

Clements's system 168

Normal and anomalous succession 169

Primary and secondary succession 169

Cowles's system 171

Possible bases of classification 175

Developmental basis of classification 175

Initial areas and causes 176

Relative importance of bases 177

The climax as a basis 177

Recognition of climax areas 177

Climaxes of North American vegetation 179

Subclimaxes 180

Relationship of climaxes 180

Names of climaxes 181

Priseres and subseres 182

Hydroseres and xeroseres 182

Phylogenetic system 183

Climax Formations of North America

Classification 184

The Deciduous Forest Climax

Prisere 184

Hydrosere 184

Xerosere 203

Subsere 212

The Prairie-Plains Climax

Prisere 214

Xerosere 214

Hydrosere 220

Subsere 221

The Cordilleran Climaxes

Priseres 225

Subseres 226

Desert Climaxes

Southeastern Climaxes

Succession in Eurasia

Scandinavia

Britain

Middle Europe

Russia

Mediterranean region

Tropics and subtropics

Past Climates and Climaxes

Interpretation

Interpretation of past vegetations 279

Methods of interpretation 280

Vegetation Eras

Criteria 283

Evidence from the method of sequence 286

Division into eras 288

Saporta's table of eras and periods 288

Relation of vegetation era and eosere 289

Comparison of geologic and vegetation eras 289

The Plant Record

Nature 290

Strates and stases 291

The strate 292

Kinds of strates 293

The stase 293

Water stases 294

Kinds of stases 295

Relations of strate and stase 295

Relation to stratigraphic units 296

Relation to succession 297

Deformation and Gradation

Processes 297

Nature of deformation 298

Great periodic movements of deformation 298

Sequences of deformation 299

Permian deformation 300

The circulation sequence 300

The gradation sequence 300

The climatic sequence 301

The deformation cycle 302

The series of deformation cycles 304

Deformation and unconformity 305

Correlation of climates 306

Effects upon vegetation 307

The cycle of erosion 307

Relation to vegetation 309

Past Climates

Interpretation 312

Evidence of past climates and changes 313

Geologic evidence 313

Salt and gypsum 314

Red beds 314

Terraces 315

Fluctuations of lake levels 316

Botanic Evidence

Plant fossils 317

Successional evidences 317

Evidence from stases 318

Evidence from annual rings 318

Zooic Evidence

Animal fossils 319

Culture relicts 319

Causes of Climatic Changes

Kinds of causes 320

The deformational hypothesis 321

The volcanic hypothesis 322

The solar hypothesis 325

Kullmer's law of the shift of the storm-track 326

The cyclonic solar hypothesis 327

Relative value of causes 327

Coincidence of causes 328

Climatic Cycles

Relation of changes and cycles 329

Kinds of cycles 330

Arotowski's cycle of 2½ years 330

The 11-year sun-spot cycle 332

Sun-spot maxima and minima from 1750 to 1913 333

Table of maximum and minimum years, 1610 to 1913 334

Nature of sun-spots 334

Effects of sun-spots upon climate 334

Douglass's 21-year cycle 336

Brückner's 35-year cycle 336

Major sun-spot cycles 337

Volcanic cycles 338

Deformational cycles 339

The Series of Climax Cycles

Correlation of cycles 339

Table of climatic cycles 340

Spatial differentiation of climates 341

Correlation of Climatic Cycles and Succession

General relations 342

Responses of vegetation 342

Relation to the different climatic cycles 343

Past Succession: The Ceneosere

General Principles

Phylogeny and ontogeny 344

Recapitulation 345

Geosere and eosere 346

Clisere 347

Cosere 348

Correlations of seres 349

Processes and principles of past succession 349

The Cenophyiic Era

The Flora:

Nature and origin 351

Relation to Mesophytic and Paleophytic floras 351

Inferences from distribution 352

Inferences from phylogeny 353

The Life-forms:

The record 354

Methods of inference 354

Dominants 355

Structure of the vegetation 356

Climates and Habitats:

Relation of habitat to climate 357

Deformational and climatic cycles 359

Periods and epochs 359

The Ceneosere:

The Cretaceous period 360

Life-forms and dominants 361

Cretaceous seres and coseres 363

The Cretaceous-Eocene clisere:

The deformation cycle 364

Vegetation zones 365

Dominants of the Eocene 366

The Oligocene-Miocene clisere

The deformation cycle 365

Coseres and cliseres 366

The Pleistocene cliseres and coseres

The deformation cycle 368

The causes of glaciation 368

Glaclal-interglacial cycles 371

The Pleistocene flora 371

Pliocene climax zones 372

The Jerseyan-Aftonian clisere 372

Seres and coseres 376

Postglacial succession 377

The Peat Clistase 378

Mebeosere and Paleosere

The Mesophytic Era

The flora 404

Composition of the flora 404

Life-forms and dominants 405

Structure of the vegetation 406

Deformation and climatic cycles 406

Climate of the periods 408

The Meseosere

Permian succession 409

Triassic succession 411

Jurassic succession 412

The Cycadean climax 413

Comanchean succession 414

The Paleophytic Era

The flora 417

Life-forms and dominants 419

Structure of the vegetation 419

Deformational cycles and climates 419

The Paleosere

The sere 420

The cosere 421

The clisere 422

The Investigation of Succession

Primary methods 423

Special methods 424

The Quadrat Method

Concept and significance 424

Kinds of quadrats 425

List quadrat 425

Chart quadrat 426

Permanent quadrat 427

Denuded quadrat 429

Quadrat series and sequences 429

Various quadrats 430

The transect 430

The bisect 432

The migration circle 433

Methods of Mapping

Methods 435

Community charts and ecotone maps 435

Survey maps 436

Climax maps 436

Instrumental Methods

General considerations 437

Measurement of reactions 438

Measurement of water reactions 438

Measurement of light reactions 439

Growth Methods

Ring counts 440

Burn-scars 441

Tables of Genera 443

Tables of Life Forms and Dominants 406

Bibliography

==Index==